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...on Gambling
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www.ProjectCork.org
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Fall 2009
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Towards DSM-V: 'Shadow Syndrome' symptom patterns among pathological gamblers.
Boudreau A; Labrie R; Shaffer HJ. Addiction Research & Theory 17(4): 406-419, 2009. (22 refs.)
Objective: By comparing the co-occurring symptoms instead of co-occurring diagnoses, we will determine if there are symptoms independent of DSM diagnoses that are capable of differentiating between pathological gamblers (PG) and non-pathological gamblers. Method: This study identified past 12-month co-occurring sub-diagnostic psychiatric symptoms (i.e. shadow symptoms) among the 43,093 individuals who participated in the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. We compared the prevalence of these shadow symptoms among individuals with five or more DSM-IV (PG) symptoms to the prevalence among individuals who gamble with no associated problems. Factor analyses applied to 428 non-duplicated past-year symptoms compiled from 29 DSM-IV diagnostic schedules yielded 13 symptom clusters that included 212 symptoms. Results: Most (58%) PGs reported symptoms that were not directly related to gambling, but were more prevalent among gamblers without gambling-related problems. Conclusions: These findings provide evidence that people who satisfy DSM-IV diagnostic criteria (e.g. pathological gambling) are likely to report meaningful co-occurring sub-clinical symptoms that are associated with other diagnostic classes. Consequently, diagnostic classification should be complemented with an awareness of co-occurring sub-clinical symptom patterns (i.e. shadow syndromes). Copyright 2009, Taylor & Francis.
The effect of near-miss rate and card control when American Indians and non-indians gamble in a laboratory situation: The influence of alcohol.
Whitton M; Weatherly JN. American Indian And Alaska Native Mental Health Research 16(2): 28-42, 2009. (25 refs.)
Twelve American Indian (AI) and 12 non-AI participants gambled on a slot-machine simulation and on video poker. Prior to the gambling sessions, half of the participants consumed alcohol while the other half consumed a placebo beverage. They then played the slot-machine simulation three times, with the percentage of programmed "near misses" varying across sessions. They also played video poker three times, with the control the players had over holding and discarding cards varying across sessions. Results showed that AI participants played significantly fewer poker hands than did non-AIs and that participants played most when they had the least control over what cards were played. No significant effect of alcohol consumption was observed. Likewise, results failed to show a significant effect of the percentage of near misses when participants played the slot-machine simulation. The present results lend support for the idea that the differences in gambling problems between AI and non-AI reported in the literature are not a function of ethnicity per se. They may also suggest that providing video poker players with accurate information may have the unintended effect of increasing the rate at which they gamble. Copyright 2009, National Center for American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research.
Secondhand smoke in Pennsylvania casinos: A study of nonsmokers' exposure, dose, and risk.
Repace JL. American Journal of Public Health 99(8): 1478-1485, 2009. (33 refs.)
Objectives. I assessed air pollution, ventilation, and nonsmokers' risk from secondhand smoke (SHS) in Pennsylvania casinos exempted from a statewide smoke-free workplace law. Methods. I measured respirable suspended particles (RSPs), particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PPAHs), and carbon dioxide inside and outs de casinos; measured changes in patrons' urine cotinine after casino visits; and assessed SHS impact on workers and patrons, using exposure-response models, air quality standards, and odor and irritation thresholds. Results. PPAH and RSP concentrations in casinos were, on average, 4 an 1 6 times, respectively, that of outdoor levels despite generous ventilation and low smoking prevalence. SHS infiltrated into nonsmoking gaming areas. Patrons' urine cotinine increased 1.9 ng/mL on average after about 4-hour visits. Conclusions. SHS-induced heart disease and lung cancer will cause an estimated 6 Pennsylvania casino workers' deaths annually per 10000 at risk the death rate from Pennsylvania mining disasters. Casinos shown not be exempt from smoke-free workplace laws. Copyright 2009, American Public Health Association.
Sitting at the virtual poker table: A prospective epidemiological study of actual Internet poker gambling behavior.
LaPlante DA; Kleschinsky JH; LaBrie RA; Nelson SE; Shaffer HJ. Computers in Human Behavior 25(3, Special Issue): 711-717, 2009. (54 refs.)
Internet gambling is a potential object of addictive behavior and consequently an important concern for public health. Epidemiological analyses of Internet gambling are necessary to determine the extent of public health threat. This paper reports the results of the first prospective epidemiological study of actual Internet poker gambling behavior. Participants were 3445 Internet gambling service subscribers who enrolled during February 2005. Data include two years of recorded poker outcomes (i.e., chips bought and sold) for each poker session played. Among our sample, we identified two subgroups of poker players. Approximately 95% of the sample bought a median of (sic)12 worth of chips at each of two poker sessions per week during a median duration from first to last bet of six months. A smaller subgroup (i.e., 5%) of most involved poker players bought a median of (sic)89 worth of chip at each of 10 sessions per week during a median duration from first to last bet of 18 months. In addition to level differences, we report the differences in patterns of behavior observed between these two subgroups. The analyses presented in this paper suggest that the majority of Internet poker players moderated their behavior based on their wins and losses. A minority of most involved players did not show such moderation. These results have important implications for both gambling-and addiction-related research. Copyright 2009, Elsevier Science.
Pathological gambling and criminality. (review).
Folino JO; Abait PE. Current Opinion In Psychiatry 22(5): 477-481, 2009. (27 refs.)
Purpose of review: To review research results on the relationship between pathological gambling and criminality, published in 2007 and 2008, in English and in Spanish. Recent findings: An important association between pathological gambling and criminality was confirmed in populations of anonymous gamblers, helpline callers and substance abusers. Helplines provide a timely service to gamblers who have not reached the maximum stages in the development of a pathological gambling pattern. Pathological gambling is associated with violence in couples and dysfunctional families. Inversely, violence is also an antecedent promoting vulnerability toward pathological gambling. Impulsiveness shows diverse relationships with pathological gambling and violence as well. A pathological gambler's involvement in crime is exceptionally considered without responsibility by justice, but it may be an indicator of the disorder severity and the need for special therapeutic tactics. Summary: While reviewing the present study, research work was published that contributed to a better understanding of the association between pathological gambling and criminality and went further into their complex relationship and the formulation of explanatory models related to impulsiveness. Copyright 2009, Rapid Science Publishers.
Cards and dice in smoky rooms: Tobacco bans and modern casinos.
Rychlak RJ. Drake Law Review 57: 467-514, 2009. (284 refs.)
Summary: ... Even if casinos are able to avoid the application of state or local smoking bans, lawsuits brought by nonsmokers on the basis of occupational safety or under the Americans with Disabilities Act may force casinos to ban smoking. ... This agreement required the industry to pay $10 billion per year over twenty-five years, or $250 billion total, which was supposed to fund a charitable foundation that would support the study of programs to reduce teen smoking and substance abuse and the prevention of diseases associated with tobacco use. ... The exemption for casinos also did not sit well with other Atlantic City businesses - the New Jersey Restaurant Association threatened to file suit and ask a federal judge to block its enforcement. ... While not an absolute solution to the problems posed by exposure to ETS, separate designated smoking areas represent a reasonable compromise between the interests of casinos and antismoking activists. ... As an example of how deferential the Court has been with respect to the protection of public health, consider that early in the twentieth century, several states had "laws banning the production, sale, advertisement, or use of cigarettes." Copyright 2009, Drake University.
The inequality of fair play: Lottery gambling and social stratification in Germany.
Beckert J; Lutter M. European Sociological Review 25(4): 475-488, 2009. (74 refs.)
On the basis of a telephone survey conducted on a random sample of the German residential population, we examine the distribution effects state lotteries have on Germanys social structure. Lotteries are highly taxed economic transactions, whose proceeds make up a considerable share of public fiscal revenues. Our analysis shows that lotteries are a form of regressive taxation. Using key demographic indicators, such as age, citizenship, and levels of income and education, we demonstrate the effects of fiscal redistribution. Copyright 2009, Oxford University Press.
Alexithymia and pathological gambling.
Toneatto T; Lecce J; Bagby M. Journal of Addictive Diseases 28(3): 193-198, 2009. (12 refs.)
The purpose of this study was to study the relationship between alexithymia and gambling in a community sample of pathological gamblers. Pathological, problem and non-problem gamblers were recruited from the community via advertisements and completed an assessment of their gambling behavior and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale. Alexithymia was higher among male pathological gamblers who identified slot machines, cards, and lotteries as their primary gambling problem. High alexithymics scored higher on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual symptoms related to poor self-regulation, communication, and problem-solving skills. Although a correlational study, the evidence suggests that further investigation of the clinical significance of alexithymia in individuals with severe gambling pathology is indicated. Copyright 2009, Haworth Press.
Governments as promoters of dangerous consumptions. (commentary).
Orford J. Addiction 104(5): 693-695, 2009. (13 refs.)
This is a commentary on the article in this issue by PJ Adams, J Raeburn J, and K Silva, "Question of balance: prioritizing public health responses to harm from gambling." The commentary notes that governments find themselves in an awkward position regarding the promotion of gambling, wishing to promote it while reducing the problems associated with it. The Gambling Commission, the British regulator of all gambling except the National Lottery and spread betting, is charged explicitly with facilitating the promotion of gambling while regulating it to keep crime out, to ensure that gambling is conducted fairly and openly, and to protect children and other vulnerable people from being harmed or exploited. That flies in the face of a public health model which suggests that increased engagement in a dangerous activity will lead to a higher prevalence of harm. It can only be squared with a view that supposes that gambling is essentially harmless, the only exceptions being the irresponsible gambling patterns of a tiny minority characterized by special personal vulnerability. It also sits most easily with an approach to prevention which privileges education-a weak form of prevention-rather than a legislative or fiscal approach which makes the activity less available or affordable. Of particular note is the emphasis on mobilizing communities to be vigilant about gambling in their areas. Most of the research to date on the concentration of gambling outlets in different localities has come from Australia (e.g.), and it seems that New Zealand is well ahead in thinking of gambling as something that is of concern, not only to individuals, their families and any treatment providers who may be called upon to respond to their problems, but also to the communities in which people live. This is a refreshing approach and not one, sadly, with which we have much familiarity in Britain. Copyright 2009, Society for the Study of Addiction to Alcohol and Other Drugs.
The co-occurrence of alcohol use and gambling activities in first-year college students.
Martens MP; Rocha TL; Cimini MD; Diaz-Myers A; Rivero EM; Wulfert E. Journal of American College Health 57(6): 597-602, 2009
Objective: Both alcohol use and gambling are behaviors that can be problematic for many college students however, it is not clear whether the relationship between the 2 exists for students who have recently entered college. Participants: The sample included 908 first-year college students who were Surveyed in fall 2005, approximately 1 month after entering college. Methods: Participants completed Web-based surveys on alcohol use and gambling behaviors. Results: Alcohol use and alcohol-related risks were significantly related to both gambling frequency and peak gambling loss. Conclusions: These findings have implications for researchers and clinicians working in the area of addictive behaviors among college students, suggesting that those presenting with problems in 1 domain may also be at risk for problems in the other. Copyright 2009, Heldref Publications.
How do gamblers end gambling: Longitudinal analysis of internet gambling behaviors prior to account closure due to gambling related problems.
Xuan ZM; Shaffer H. Journal of Gambling Studies 25(2): 239-252, 2009. (31 refs.)
Objective: To examine behavioral patterns of actual Internet gamblers who experienced gambling-related problems and voluntarily closed their accounts. Design: A nested case-control design was used to compare gamblers who closed their accounts because of gambling problems to those who maintained open accounts. Setting: Actual play patterns of in vivo Internet gamblers who subscribed to an Internet gambling site. Participants: 226 gamblers who closed accounts due to gambling problems were selected from a cohort of 47,603 Internet gamblers who subscribed to an Internet gambling site during February 2005; 226 matched-case controls were selected from the group of gamblers who did not close their accounts. Daily aggregates of behavioral data were collected during an 18-month study period. Main outcome measures: Main outcomes of interest were daily aggregates of stake, odds, and net loss, which were standardized by the daily aggregate number of bets. We also examined the number of bets to measure trajectory of gambling frequency. Results: Account closers due to gambling problems experienced increasing monetary loss as the time to closure approached; they also increased their stake per bet. Yet they did not chase longer odds; their choices of wagers were more probabilistically conservative (i.e., short odds) compared with the controls. The changes of monetary involvement and risk preference occurred concurrently during the last few days prior to voluntary closing. Conclusions: Our finding of an involvement-seeking yet risk-averse tendency among self-identified problem gamblers challenges the notion that problem gamblers seek "long odds" during "chasing.". Copyright 2009, Springer Press.
Barriers to seeking help for gambling problems: A review of the empirical literature.
Suurvali H; Cordingley J; Hodgins DC; Cunningham J. Journal of Gambling Studies 25(3): 407-424, 2009. (36 refs.)
This literature review summarizes recent empirical research on obstacles preventing problem gamblers from seeking treatment for their gambling problems. Relevant databases and bibliographies were searched for English-language papers and reports published since 1998. The only methodological requirement was that gamblers themselves be asked about reasons for not seeking help. Nineteen studies conducted in five countries were identified. All except one targeted adults. Despite differences in methodology, many of the same barriers to treatment were identified. Most commonly reported barriers were: wish to handle problem by oneself; shame/embarrassment/stigma; unwillingness to admit problem; and issues with treatment itself. The authors of the review argue that unwillingness to admit to the problem may be even more prevalent than is typically indicated by the results of barriers studies. Other frequently reported barriers included lack of knowledge about treatment options and practical issues around attending treatment. More research is needed on barriers to treatment-seeking experienced by subgroups of gamblers defined by culture, ethnicity, gender, age. Open-ended questioning methods can help provide insights into what barrier categories mean to different groups and individuals. Input directly from gamblers can be combined with information from other kinds of studies to devise better ways of reaching problem gamblers, especially those in underserviced populations. Copyright 2009, Springer Press.
Young adult gambling behaviors and their relationship with the persistence of ADHD.
Breyer JL; Botzet AM; Winters KC; Stinchfield RD; August G; Realmuto G. Journal of Gambling Studies 25(2): 227-238, 2009. (50 refs.)
Young adulthood is a period renowned for engagement in impulsive and risky behaviors, including gambling. There are some indications that young adults exhibit higher gambling rates in comparison to older adults. Problem gambling has also been linked to ADHD. This longitudinal study examines the relationship between gambling and ADHD among an epidemiological sample of young adults (n = 235; males = 179, females = 56) aged 18-24. Results indicate that individuals who report childhood ADHD symptoms which persist into young adulthood experience greater gambling problem severity than participants with no ADHD or those with non-persistent ADHD. Copyright 2009, Springer Press.
Pathological video-game use among youth ages 8 to 18: A national study.
Gentile D. Psychological Science 20(5): 594-602, 2009. (27 refs.)
Researchers have studied whether some youth are "addicted" to video games, but previous studies have been based on regional convenience samples. Using a national sample, this study gathered information about video-gaming habits and parental involvement in gaming, to determine the percentage of youth who meet clinical-style criteria for pathological gaming. A Harris poll surveyed a randomly selected sample of 1,178 American youth ages 8 to 18. About 8% of video-game players in this sample exhibited pathological patterns of play. Several indicators documented convergent and divergent validity of the results: Pathological gamers spent twice as much time playing as nonpathological gamers and received poorer grades in school; pathological gaming also showed comorbidity with attention problems. Pathological status significantly predicted poorer school performance even after controlling for sex, age, and weekly amount of video-game play. These results confirm that pathological gaming can be measured reliably, that the construct demonstrates validity, and that it is not simply isomorphic with a high amount of play. Copyright 2009, Wiley-Blackwell.
Is video-game playing a risk factor for pathological gambling in Australian adolescents?
Delfabbro P; King D; Lambos C; Puglies S. Journal of Gambling Studies 25(3): 391-405, 2009. (53 refs.)
Very little research has been conducted to examine therelationship between video-game playing and gambling in adolescence. In this study, 2,669 adolescents aged 13-17 years were surveyed to obtained details of their involvement in gambling and video-game playing as well as a measure of pathological gambling (the DSM-IV-J). The results showed that, the frequency of video game playing was significantly related to pathological gambling, but that the effect size was very small and largely accounted for by the greater popularity of both activities amongst boys. There was some evidence for stronger associations between technologically similar activities, namely arcade video games and an interest in gaming machines, but other factors discussed in the paper may also account for this association. In summary, the findings suggested that playing video-games is unlikely to be a significant risk factor for pathological gambling during adolescence. Copyright 2009, Springer Press.
Beating the odds: Regulation of online gaming stateside and abroad.
Lester L. Journal of the National Association of Administrative Law Judiciary 28(Fall): 621-671, 2008. (242 refs.)
SUMMARY: ... This comment will examine the history and the current state of Internet gambling regulation, both in the United States and in foreign nations. ... Nevada: A State Example of Attempts to Regulate Internet Gaming Nevada heavily regulates its gaming industry, subjecting its casinos and virtually anyone who works in the industry to a slew of obligations and requirements that employees and casinos must meet in order for the casinos and hotels to maintain their gaming licenses and to keep their doors open to the millions who enter every day. ... ß 5361(a)(3) which states "Internet gambling is a growing cause of debt collection problems for insured depository institutions and the consumer credit industry." ... The UIGEA also defines "Intrastate Transactions" as follows: Unlawful Internet gambling' does not include placing, receiving, or otherwise transmitting a bet or wager where ... the bet or wager is initiated and received or otherwise made exclusively within a single State ... the bet or wager and the method by which the bet or wager is initiated and received or otherwise made is expressly authorized by and placed in accordance with the laws of such State, and the State law or regulations include ... age and location verification requirements reasonably designed to block access to minors and persons located out of such State; and ... appropriate data security standards to prevent unauthorized access by any person whose age and current location has not been verified in accordance with such State's law or regulations; and ... the bet or wager does not violate any provision of ... the Interstate Horseracing Act of 1978 citation omitted ... the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act citation omitted ... the Gambling Devices Transportation Act citation omitted ; or ... the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act. ... In addition, IGREA prohibits any licensee from engaging in taking Internet bets or wagers "in connection with any sport event or contest of any sporting league which prohibits such business if the chief executive officer of such sporting league informs the Director before the end of the 90-day period." ... These issues include: assessing the ability of Americans to utilize Internet gaming sites; determining what effects Internet gambling has on minors and compulsive gamblers, as well as what safeguards are already in place for dealing with these effects; determining how much of Internet gaming revenue is being utilized by terrorists and other like organizations for purposes of money laundering or fraud; analyzing the licensing systems already in use by other countries; looking at the possibility of having the states develop their own frameworks and concurrently, any federalism issues that may arise; looking at the forecasted potential tax revenue that could be realized from legalizing such a scheme; and looking at the impact the refusal of the United States to honor the WTO ruling as well as looking at possible solutions to obtain international cooperation in dealing with American procedures. Copyright 2008, National Association of Administrative Law Judiciary.
Betting on prohibition: The federal government's approach to internet gambling.
Grahmann KP. Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property 7(Spring): 162-184, 2009. (199 refs.)
Summary: ... It analyzes existing laws--the Wire and Travel Acts--and previously proposed legislation--the Internet Gambling Prohibition Acts of 1998 (IGPA 98) and 1999 (IGPA 99) and the Internet Gambling Enforcement Act (IGEA). ... Part V analyzes the UIGEA prohibition on virtual casinos in the context of laws restricting the prevalence on the Internet of two other items heavily regulated in the United States: alcohol and cigarettes. ... H.R. 4419 was an Internet gambling funding prohibition bill that banned virtual casinos from accepting a bettor's credit cards, electronic fund transfers, or checks in connection with illegal Internet wagers. ... Absent from the UIGEA's "Congressional findings and purpose" are some of the most commonly cited rationales for restricting Internet gambling, such as prevention of access by children and avoidance of social harms. ... Like gambling control, alcohol regulation is a power primarily reserved to the states. ... The Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006 resolves the virtual gaming problem by banning the acceptance of proceeds from payment systems by a person engaged in an Internet gambling business. Copyright 2009, Northwestern University, School of Law.
Too close to the money: A theory of compulsive gambling.
Bjerg O. Theory, Culture & Society 26(4): 47-66, 2009. (39 refs.)
This article explores the relationship between gambling and capitalism. The subjective being of the compulsive gambler provides insight into the role of money in capitalism. Using the Lacanian approach of Zizek, money is analysed as a sublime object of capitalist ideology. In gambling, however, the subject engages money in a very direct encounter with the Lacanian 'Real', circumventing the ordinary symbolic order of capitalism. This results in a momentary de-sublimation of money, stripping it of the metaphysical properties otherwise vested in it by capitalism. For the compulsive gambler, the de-sublimation has become permanent, making it impossible for him to function as an ordinary capitalist subject. He has come too close to money, leaving him in a pathological state of being out of joint with capitalism. Copyright 2009, Sage Publications.
Gambling, gambling activities, and problem gambling.
Holtgraves T. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 23(2): 295-302, 2009. (34 refs.)
This research examined similarities and differences between gambling activities, with a particular focus on differences in gambling frequency and rates of problem gambling. The data were from population-based surveys conducted in Canada between 2001 and 2005. Adult respondents completed various versions of the Canadian Problem Gambling Index (CPGI), including the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). A factor analysis of the frequency with which different gambling activities were played documented the existence of two clear underlying factors. One factor was comprised of Internet gambling and betting on sports and horse races. and the other factor was comprised of lotteries, raffles, slots/Video Lottery Terminals (VLTs), and bingo. Factor one respondents were largely men: factor two respondents were more likely to be women and scored significantly lower on a measure of problem gambling. Additional analyses indicated that (1) frequency of play was significantly and positively related to problem gambling scores for all activities except raffles, (2) the relationship between problem gambling scores and frequency of play was particularly pronounced for slots/VLTs. (3) problem gambling scores were associated with playing a larger number of games, and (4) Internet and sports gambling had the highest conversion rates (proportion who have tried an activity who frequently play that activity). Copyright 2009, Educational Publishing Foundation.
Social responsibility tools in online gambling: A survey of attitudes and behavior among internet gamblers.
Griffiths MD; Wood RTA; Parke J. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 12(4): 413-421, 2009. (18 refs.)
To date, little empirical research has focused on social responsibility in gambling. This study examined players' attitudes and behavior toward using the social responsibility tool PlayScan designed by the Swedish gaming company Svenska Spel. Via PlayScan, players have the option to utilize various social responsibility control tools (e.g., personal gaming budgets, self-diagnostic tests of gambling habits, self-exclusion options). A total of 2,348 participants took part in an online questionnaire study. Participants were clientele of the Svenska Spel online gambling Web site. Results showed that just over a quarter of players (26%) had used PlayScan. The vast majority of those who had activated PlayScan (almost 9 in 10 users) said that PlayScan was easy to use. Over half of PlayScan users (52%) said it was useful; 19% said it was not. Many features were seen as useful by online gamblers, including limit setting (70%), viewing their gambling profile (49%), self-exclusion facilities (42%), self-diagnostic problem gambling tests (46%), information and support for gambling issues (40%), and gambling profile predictions (36%). In terms of actual (as opposed to theoretical) use, over half of PlayScan users (56%) had set spending limits, 40% had taken a self-diagnostic problem gambling test, and 17% had used a self-exclusion feature. Copyright Mary Ann Lieebert.
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