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CORK Bibliography: Research Methodology

58 citations. January 2009 to present

Prepared: September 2009

Ahern J; Hubbard A; Galea S. Estimating the effects of potential public health interventions on population disease burden: A step-by-step illustration of causal inference methods. American Journal of Epidemiology 169(9): 1140-1147, 2009. (52 refs.)

Causal inference methods allow estimation of the effects of potential public health interventions on the population burden of disease. Motivated by calls for epidemiologic research to be presented in ways that are more informative for intervention, the authors present a didactic discussion of the steps required to estimate the population effect of a potential intervention using an imputation-based causal inference method and discuss the assumptions of and limitations to its use. An analysis of neighborhood smoking norms and individual smoking behavior is used as an illustration. The implementation steps include the following: 1) modeling the adjusted exposure and outcome association, 2) imputing the outcome probability for each individual while manipulating the exposure by "setting" it to different values, 3) averaging these probabilities across the population, and 4) bootstrapping confidence intervals. Imputed probabilities represent counterfactual estimates of the population smoking prevalence if neighborhood smoking norms could be manipulated through intervention. The degree to which temporal ordering, randomization, stability, and experimental treatment assignment assumptions are met in the illustrative example is discussed, along with ways that future studies could be designed to better meet the assumptions. With this approach, the potential effects of an intervention targeting neighborhoods, individuals, or other units can be estimated.

Ahmed SH; Graupner M; Gutkin B. Computational approaches to the neurobiology of drug addiction. Pharmacopsychiatry 42(Supplement 1): S144-S152, 2009. (77 refs.)

To increase our understanding of drug addiction - notably its pharmacological and neurobiological determinants - researchers have begun to formulate computational models of drug self-administration. Currently, one can roughly distinguish between three classes of models which all have in common to attribute to brain dopamine signaling a key role in addiction. The first class of models contains quantitative pharmacological models that describe the influence of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic factors on drug self-administration. These models fail, however, to explain how the drug self-administration behavior is acquired and how it eventually becomes rigid and compulsive with extended drug use. Models belonging to the second class circumvent some of these limitations by modeling how drug use usurps the function of dopamine in reinforcement learning and action selection. However, despite their behavioral plausibility, these latter models lack neurobiological plausibility and ignore the potential role of opponent processes in addiction. The third class of models attempts to surmount these pitfalls by providing a more realistic picture of the midbrain dopamine circuitry and of the complex action of drugs of abuse in the output of this circuitry. Here we provide a brief overview of these different models to illustrate the potential contribution of mathematical modeling to our understanding of the neurobiology of drug addiction.

Bird SM. Database linkage: Outside reflections on health care in prisons. (commentary). Addiction 104(7): 1241-1242, 2009. (12 refs.)

This commentary addresses the article by JN Marzo, M.Rotily, F Meroueh, M Varastet, C Hunault C., et al. " RECAMS Study Group. Maintenance therapy and 3-year outcome of opioid-dependent prisoners: a prospective study in France (2003-06). Addiction 2009; 104: 1233-40. The commentary addresses issures related to data analysis and the sample size required for statistical power and ability to generalize.

Blank MD; Disharoon S; Eissenberg T. Comparison of methods for measurement of smoking behavior: Mouthpiece-based computerized devices versus direct observation. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 11(7): 896-903, 2009. (29 refs.)

Understanding factors that influence tobacco use often involves detailed assessment of smoking behavior (i.e., puff topography) via mouthpiece-based, computerized devices. Research suggests that the use of a mouthpiece to evaluate topography may alter natural smoking behavior. This study was designed to compare topography measurement using mouthpiece-based methods (i.e., desktop and portable computerized devices) to methods that do not use a mouthpiece (i.e., direct observation). A total of 30 smokers (>= 15 full-flavor or light cigarettes/day) participated in six Latin square-ordered, 2.5-hr experimental sessions that were preceded by at least 8 hr of objectively verified tobacco abstinence (carbon monoxide level < 10 ppm). Each session consisted of participants smoking four cigarettes (own brand or Merit ultra-light) ad libitum, conventionally or using a desktop or portable device. Sessions were videotaped using a digital camcorder. All three measurement methods were sensitive to oft-reported brand- and bout-induced changes. Topography measurement differed little between methods (across methods, all r values > .68), and each method was reliable (across bouts within each condition, most r values > .78). In contrast, participants perceived the use of either mouthpiece-based device to alter aspects of their smoking behavior (e.g., increased smoking difficulty, reduced enjoyment, altered cigarette taste; p < .05), relative to video recording only. Although direct observational methods may be optimal for measuring certain smoking characteristics, logistical challenges posed by this method likely limit its usefulness. Together, these results suggest that mouthpiece-based devices offer a convenient and useful tool for researchers examining smoking topography.

Bondy SJ; Victor JC; Diemert LM. Origin and use of the 100 cigarette criterion in tobacco surveys. Tobacco Control 18(4): 317-323, 2009. (72 refs.)

Truly global standards and definitions will likely never exist for tobacco control surveillance. One difference across definitions of smoking status is whether or not a lifetime consumption of 100 cigarettes is a necessary criterion for ever and current smoking. Frequently asked questions about this measure demonstrate a need for information on its development and appropriateness in different settings. This commentary attempts to assemble information on the origin and adoption of this measure and provide some critical commentary on its usefulness. The question has been traced to Canadian and American mortality cohort studies from the mid-1950s. From there it has spread to inconsistent use in many settings. To our knowledge, it was not originally (or since) empirically defined as a threshold of exposure related to health consequences or future smoking risk when used in youth. Anecdotal evidence over several decades, however, shows the question has pragmatic utility in self-report data collection. It is a useful, if somewhat arbitrary, screener for "never regular'' tobacco use among adults, where never smoking needs to be defined in data collection. Use of the criterion may lower prevalence estimates somewhat. Definitions must always be considered when creating time-trends or international comparisons. There are also circumstances where it is inappropriate to exclude individuals who do not meet this criterion from further data collection, or reports. For research in youth, the criterion typically should be used only with more detailed information about experimentation, but it may be a useful additional indicator of established smoking.

Bruzzese JM; Gallagher R; McCann-Doyle S; Reiss PT; Wijetunga NA. Effective methods to improve recruitment and retention in school-based substance use prevention studies. Journal of School Health 79(9): 400-407, 2009. (39 refs.)

BACKGROUND: Poor recruitment and high attrition may invalidate results of research studies. This paper describes successful recruitment and retention strategies in a school-based substance use prevention trial and explores factors associated with intervention attendance and retention. METHODS: A total of 384 parent-child dyads from 15 schools in the New York Metropolitan area participated in a control trial, testing the efficacy of parent-training to prevent youth substance use. Assessments were completed immediately post-intervention and 6-, 12-, and 24-month postintervention. Logistic regression analyses were used to determine which familial and study characteristics predicted attendance in the intervention and retention by parents and youth. RESULTS: 84% of intervention parents attended 4 of the 5 workshops; 83% of control parents attended their single workshop. Intervention attendance was predicted by parent job status, but this was not significant after controlling for other family factors. Retention rates ranged from 87% to 91% over the 2 years. No family characteristics predicted retention, but time since baseline and attendance at treatment workshops and the control workshop did. For children, age at baseline and ethnicity predicted retention, but this did not remain significant in the adjusted model. CONCLUSION: Intervention attendance was high and retention rates far exceeded the minimum standard of 70% retention in behavioral studies. Recruitment and retention strategies were effective for different family constellations. Efforts to maximize participation in both treatment and control interventions are critical to retention in longitudinal trials.

Campbell KM. Impact of record-linkage methodology on performance indicators and multivariate relationships. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 36(1): 110-117, 2009. (23 refs.)

Program evaluation often requires the linkage of records from independently maintained data systems (e.g., substance abuse treatment and criminal justice). Data entry errors (e.g., misspelled names, transposed digits) complicate the linkage task. In this investigation, three record-linkage algorithms (match-merge, common patient identifier, and probabilistic) are used to link recipients of publicly funded outpatient substance abuse treatment to statewide arrest and death data. The impact of record-linkage algorithm on performance indicators, prevalence indicators (i.e., arrest rates, and death rates), and hazard ratios derived from a multivariate survival analysis predicting risk of arrest following admission to outpatient substance abuse treatment is evaluated. Choice of algorithm substantially impacted estimates of arrest rates (range: year prior to admission, 39.8%-53.4%; year following admission, 24.7%-33.1%). The hazard ratio associated with "prior arrest" as a predictor of arrest following admission to outpatient substance abuse treatment (hazard ratio range = 0.20-0.37, p <.05) was also influenced by algorithm choice.

Carballo JL; Fernandez-Hermida JR; Secades-Villa R; Garcia-Rodriguez O. Effectiveness and efficiency of methodology for recruiting participants in natural recovery from alcohol and drug addiction. Addiction Research & Theory 17(1): 80-90, 2009. (35 refs.)

The goal of this descriptive study is to analyse the effectiveness and efficiency in economic and temporal terms of different strategies for the recruitment of participants who have recovered without help from problems with alcohol and other drugs. Diverse recruitment strategies were implemented (press advertisements, publicizing through the media, posters, snowball technique and request for help from healthcare professionals) over a two-year period in two different countries, and the results compared in terms of effectiveness and efficiency in the recruitment of self-changers. This study was carried out in various regions of Spain and in South Florida (USA). With these strategies a total of 54 Spanish-speaking participants were recruited who had changed their consumption habits without therapeutic help, 29 of them in Spain and 25 in Florida. Economic cost and time spent for the implementation of each strategy were assessed. These costs were divided by the number of participants recruited in order to obtain the economic and temporal efficiency of each strategy. Effectiveness was analysed by means of the number of participants recruited. Advertisements emerged as the most effective and efficient strategy in terms of time, while posters was the most efficient strategy in economic terms. The recruitment of self-changers is one of the greatest obstacles facing studies that set out to analyse self-change in drug use. The economic and temporal costs are high. Further work is needed to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of recruitment strategies with the aim of optimizing the resources employed in studies on natural recovery in addictive behaviours.

Caulkins J. How to expland the 'sample size' of studies of drug market disruptions. (editorial). Addiction 104(3): 454-455, 2009. (5 refs.)

Chen HY; Gao SS. Estimation of average treatment effect with incompletely observed longitudinal data: Application to a smoking cessation study. Statistics in Medicine 28(19): 2451-2472, 2009. (38 refs.)

We study the problem of estimation and inference on the average treatment effect in a smoking, cessation trial where an outcome and some auxiliary information were measured longitudinally. and both were subject to missing Values. Dynamic generalized linear mixed effects models linking the outcome, the auxiliary information, and the covariates are proposed. The maximum likelihood approach is applied to the estimation and inference of the model parameters. The average treatment effect is estimated by the G-computation approach and the sensitivity of the treatment effect estimate to the nonignorable missing data mechanisms is investigated through the local sensitivity analysis approach. The proposed approach call handle missing data that form arbitrary missing patterns over little. We applied the proposed method to the analysis of the smoking cessation trial.

Cherpitel C; Ye Y. Alcohol and injury in the United States general population: A risk function analysis from the 2005 National Alcohol Survey. American Journal on Addictions 18(1): 29-35, 2009. (20 refs.)

A risk function analysis of data is reported from the 2005 National Alcohol Survey on average daily volume of alcohol and frequency of consuming five or more drinks per day with reporting any injury during the preceding year, an injury that was treated, or an injury that was treated in the emergency room (ER). Data suggest the association of alcohol and injury based on ER studies is not representative of all injuries, and should be taken into account in deriving estimates of risk of injury related to alcohol and alcohol-attributable fractions based on ER studies.

Chisholm AB; Harrison MJ. Opioid abuse amongst anaesthetists: a system to detect personal usage. Anesthesia and Intensive Care 37(2): 267-271, 2009. (7 refs.)

Substance abuse continues to be a significant problem amongst anaesthetists. We have investigated a run chart methodology for tracking opioid use that may be used to identify potential personal use by noting a change in usage over time. Included in the data set was a record of an anaesthetist who abused opioids. Opioids signed out from the controlled drugs safe were converted into generic units so that opioid use could be compared. These standardised units of usage were plotted against anaesthetists theatre time. We show, using run charts - a method used in industrial quality control - how abnormal usage could have been detected. The key to the run chart methodology is detection in a change in personal use rather than demonstrating any change compared with departmental averages. More time series data from anaesthetists known to have abused opioids would be required to validate the system.

Chiu YH; Hart JE; Smith TJ; Hammond SK; Garshick E; Laden F. Nicotine contamination in particulate matter sampling. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 6(2): 601-607, 2009. (13 refs.)

We have addressed potential contamination of PM2.5 filter samples by nicotine from cigarette smoke. We collected two nicotine samples - one nicotine sampling filter was placed in-line after the collection of PM2.5 and the other stood alone. The overall correlation between the two nicotine filter levels was 0.99. The nicotine collected on the "stand-alone" filter was slightly greater than that on the "in-line" filter (mean difference = 1.10 mu g/m(3)), but the difference was statistically significant only when PM2.5 was low (<= 50 mu g/m(3)). It is therefore important to account for personal and secondhand smoke exposure while assessing occupational and environmental PM.

Cunningham JA; Van Mierlo T. Methodological issues in the evaluation of Internet-based interventions for problem drinking. Drug and Alcohol Review 28(1): 12-17, 2009. (23 refs.)

Introduction and Aims. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of Internet-based interventions (IBI) for alcohol problems and other addictive behaviours. However, it is risky to assume interventions that have been found to work in face-to-face modalities can be translated into IBI that are equally effective. Design and Methods. Using selected examples from the published works, this paper will identify some of the special considerations that are relevant to the evaluation of IBI. In addition, methodological issues found in the ongoing development and evaluation of the Check Your Drinking screener (http: www.CheckYourDrinking.net), an IBI for problem drinkers, will be discussed. Results. There have been several randomised control trials with promising results. A primary limitation of much of the research conducted to date is concerns regarding the generalisability of the findings. Discussion and Conclusions. Caution should be taken in assuming that the IBI, which have been found to work in tightly controlled efficacy trials, will display similar levels of effectiveness when used in 'naturalistic' settings (i.e. not face-to-face in a research environment). Positive results from studies using a variety of different research designs will advance the potential for IBI, as a new means of helping problem drinkers reduce their alcohol consumption. Because of their accessibility and anonymity, IBI could facilitate a broad provision of treatment services at a population level.

Dack C; Reed P. Caffeine reinforces flavor preference and behavior in moderate users but not in low caffeine users. Learning and Motivation 40(1): 35-45, 2009. (33 refs.)

The study examined the role of caffeine consumption in caffeine reinforcement. Previous findings have shown that caffeine reinforced flavor preference in moderate caffeine consumers who are caffeine deprived. However, most of these studies have employed rating procedures only, and have not shown the effectiveness of caffeine to reinforce behaviors other than through subjective ratings. Twenty-five participants (15 low caffeine consumers, and 10 moderate caffeine consumers) were each given three exposures to a caffeinated drink, and three exposures to a non-caffeinated drink. Each drink was associated with a particular color. At each session, they were asked to rate the pleasantness of the drink, and choose from distinctively colored sweets. The results showed an increase in the rating of pleasantness for the caffeinated drink in moderate caffeine consumers, but a decrease in rated pleasantness for low caffeine consumers. The opposite effect was seen for the non-caffeinated drink. There was an increase in consumption of the number of sweets with the same color as that of the caffeine-paired drink in the moderate caffeine consumers. These findings suggest that caffeine may serve as a negative reinforcer, and that the alleviation of withdrawal symptoms may be associated with the flavor and appearance of the caffeinated drink.

Dixon PR; Clark T; Tiplady B. Evaluationion of a roadside impairment test device using alcohol. Accident Analysis and Prevention 41(3): 412-418, 2009. (17 refs.)

The main objective of this study was to compare the performance of a portable impairment test device known as roadside impairment testing apparatus (RITA) with the field impairment tests (FIT) that are used at the roadside by UK police. One hundred and twenty two healthy volunteers aged 18-70 years took part in this two-period crossover evaluation. The volunteers received a dose of alcohol and placebo, in the form of a drink, on separate days. Doses were calculated to produce blood alcohol concentrations of 90 mg/100ml and RITA and FIT testing was carried out between 30 and 75 min post-drink. FIT was found to have a diagnostic accuracy of 62.7%. However, there was a substantial age effect for FIT scores, with volunteers aged over 40 showing failure rates on placebo similar to the failure rates on alcohol of younger volunteers. The accuracy of RITA was between 66 and 70%, not significantly higher than that of FIT. However, RITA did not show a marked age effect. Advantageously, this could result in fewer false positives being recorded if RITA were deployed at the roadside. Horizontal gaze nystagmus (HGN) was also investigated and posted an accuracy of 74%. The inclusion of HGN as one component of a UK roadside impairment test battery warrants further exploration with other drugs.

Dollinger SJ; Malmquist D. Reliability and validity of single-item self-reports: With special relevance to college students' alcohol use, religiosity, study, and social life. Journal of General Psychology 136(3): 231-241, 2009. (20 refs.)

The authors tested the assumption that single-item measures have unacceptably low reliability and validity. On 2 occasions 11 weeks apart, college students reported on the frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption, 2 religious behaviors, time of study and of socializing (focal items), and other qualities and characteristics. Most test-retest reliabilities were good to excellent; objective facts were more reliable than subjective evaluations; and target items had good validity when correlated with 2-week nightly log records of corresponding behaviors in a multimethod multitrait matrix. The exception was self-reported study, with relatively low reliability and validity, suggesting the non-trait-like quality of this behavior. Single-item measures may be better than commonly thought.

Edelen MO; McCaffrey DF; Ellickson PL; Tucker JS; Klein DJ. Creating a developmentally sensitive measure of adolescent alcohol misuse: An application of item response theory. Substance Use & Misuse 44(6): 835-847, 2009

This study, funded by the US National Institute of Drug Abuse, evaluates the usefulness of item response theory (IRT) to create a developmental alcohol misuse scale. Data were collected during 1997-2006 from 5,828 Midwestern US students who completed annual surveys at grades 7 through 11 and 2 and 4 years after high school. Seventeen alcohol misuse items were calibrated with IRT and examined for differential item functioning (DIF) across 5 study waves. Eight items displayed DIF; in most cases, properties for items assessed 2 years after high school were different from those assessed in grades 8-11. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Edwards R. Spousal smoking as an indicator of total secondhand smoke exposure. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 11(6): 606-613, 2009. (28 refs.)

This study assessed the utility of spousal smoking as a measure of secondhand smoke exposure. The investigation involved secondary analysis of data from 526 female participants of a lung cancer case-control study from northeastern England. Secondhand smoke exposure was measured in the home (spousal and nonspousal), workplace, and social/other settings over the whole life course. Almost all women (99.1%) had at least 10 years of secondhand smoke exposure from at least one source, most commonly from parental smoking in childhood, and spousal smoking, the workplace, and social settings during adulthood. Spousal smoking was strongly correlated with overall secondhand smoke exposure in the home over the life course but was weakly correlated (Kendall's tau = -.04 to .12) with secondhand smoke exposure from other domestic sources and with secondhand smoke exposure in the workplace or social/other settings. Most women who gave no history of spousal secondhand smoke exposure recalled at least 10 years of secondhand smoke exposure in other settings: in the home through other sources (83.2% >= 10 "smoker-years"), through workplaces (63.4% >= 10 "exposure-years"), or in social settings (82.0% >= 10 exposure-years). Almost all (96.9%) reported at least 10 years of exposure from at least one of these nonspousal sources. Using spousal smoking as a proxy of total secondhand smoke exposure would have meant that these subjects would have been misclassified as not exposed to secondhand smoke. This misclassification may bias estimates of association with health outcomes toward the null. Studies of the effects of secondhand smoke exposure on health outcomes should evaluate all potential sources of secondhand smoke exposure.

Flynn PM; Broome KM; Beaston-Blaakman A; Knight DK; Horgan CM; Shepard DS. Treatment Cost Analysis Tool (TCAT) for estimating costs of outpatient treatment services. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 100(1-2): 47-53, 2009. (28 refs.)

A Microsoft (R) Excel-based workbook designed for research analysts to use in a national study was retooled for treatment program directors and financial officers to allocate, analyze, and estimate outpatient treatment costs in the U.S. This instrument can also be used as a planning and management tool to optimize resources and forecast the impact of future changes in staffing, client flow, program design, and other resources. The Treatment Cost Analysis Tool (TCAT) automatically provides feedback and generates summaries and charts using comparative data from a national sample of non-methadone outpatient providers. TCAT is being used by program staff to capture and allocate both economic and accounting costs, and outpatient service costs are reported for a sample of 70 programs. Costs for an episode of treatment in regular, intensive, and mixed types of outpatient treatment were $882, $1310, and $1381 respectively (based on 20% trimmed means and 2006 dollars). An hour of counseling cost $64 in regular, $85 intensive, and $86 mixed. Group counseling hourly costs per client were $8, $11, and $10 respectively for regular, intensive, and mixed. Future directions include use of a web-based interview version, much like some of the commercially available tax preparation software tools; and extensions for use in other modalities of treatment.

Frewen AR; Baillie AJ; Montebello ME. Are cannabis users who participate in a randomized clinical trial different from other treatment seekers? Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 36(3): 339-344, 2009. (28 refs.)

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) provide the most convincing evidence for clinical questions concerning the efficacy of interventions. When participants in RCTs are characteristically different to those in usual clinical practice, it may be difficult to generalize findings. This study compares profiles taken from a centralized intake process for those presenting with cannabis as their main drug, which were then separated into three categories, (a) those who were offered a specialist assessment for cannabis dependence over the phone but (lid not attend their appointment, (b) those who presented for their initial appointment, and c) those attending and subsequently recruited into an RCT. To explore whether issues such as severity of cannabis use and co-occurring disorders acted as a barrier to attending treatment or to inclusion in an RCT. we examined basic triage information. Results indicated that there were no statistically significant differences on selected characteristics between groups, suggesting that RCT participants were representative of treatment seekers, and that the filtering that occurs between those who snake phone contact with professional services and those who present to treatment are not necessarily due to presence of patient characteristics

Golding J. Who should be studied and when in a longitudinal birth cohort? Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 23(Supplement 1): 15-22, 2009. (42 refs.)

A longitudinal birth cohort study is uniquely able to collect information on exposures that antecede signs and symptoms leading to diagnoses, and on the development of neurocognitive and behaviour traits. Here we discuss the optimal time to start such a study, and criteria for inclusion and exclusion of subjects.

Golding J; Jones R; Preece A; Brune MN; Pronczuk J. Choice of environmental components for a longitudinal birth cohort study. (review). Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 23(Supplement 1): 134-153, 2009. (142 refs.)

Various aspects of the environment of the mother and child may have major influences on the health and development of the child. Long-term influences can even affect chronic diseases of adulthood. Here we describe the major psychosocial and physical environmental factors that should be measured in longitudinal birth cohort studies.

Hallett J; Maycock B; Kypri K; Howat P; McManus A. Development of a Web-based alcohol intervention for university students: Processes and challenges. Drug and Alcohol Review 28(1): 31-39, 2009. (38 refs.)

Introduction and Aims. Despite growing evidence of the efficacy of electronic screening and brief interventions for reducing unhealthy alcohol use, there is no published work describing the development of such interventions. We describe the process of developing and implementing an electronic screening and brief intervention in a large university population. Design and Methods. Thematic analysis of seven focus groups, involving a total of 69 students, informed the content and design of THRIVE (Tertiary Health Research Intervention Via Email). Pilot testing was conducted through usability analysis with a further 16 students. A random sample of 13 000 undergraduates was invited to complete screening and hazardous drinkers were randomised to receive Web-based assessment and feedback or screening alone. Participants' use of THRIVE was examined through server log analysis and responses to questions on instrument design/usability during follow-up assessment 6 months later. Results. A total of 7237 students (56% of those invited) completed screening; 2435 (34%) screened positive for unhealthy drinking; 1251 were randomly assigned to receive the intervention; and 1184 served as controls. In total, 99% of participants found THRIVE easy to complete, 76% said it provided personally relevant information and 55% said they would recommend it to a friend with a drinking problem. Thirty per cent sought additional information on support services through the site. Discussion and Conclusions. Key design elements include ease of access (e. g. via an emailed hyperlink), length (< 10 min), clear, non-judgmental language, personalised normative feedback and links to appropriate services. The study demonstrates the potential reach of a carefully implemented intervention in a high-risk, non-treatment-seeking population group.

Harris KJ; Golbeck AL; Cronk NJ; Catley D; Conway K; Williams KB. Timeline follow-back versus gobal self-reports of tobacco smoking: A comparison of findings with nondaily smokers. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 23(2): 368-372, 2009. (30 refs.)

Methods assessing nondaily smoking are of concern because biochemical measures cannot verify self-reports beyond 7 days. This study compared 2 self-reported smoking measures for nondaily smokers. A total of 389 college students (48% women, 96% White, mean age = 19 years) smoking between I and 29 days out of the past 30 completed computer assessments in 3 cohorts, with the order of administration of the measures counterbalanced. Values from the 2 measures were highly correlated. Comparisons of timeline follow-back (TLFB) with the global questions for the total sample of nondaily smokers yielded statistically significant differences (p < .001), albeit small, between measures with the TLFB resulting on average in 2.38 more total cigarettes smoked out of the past 30 days, 0.46 fewer smoking days, and 0.21 more cigarettes smoked per day. Analyses by level of smoking showed that the discordance between the measures differed by frequency of smoking. Global questions of days smoked resulted in frequent reporting in multiples of 5 days, suggesting digit bias. Overall, the 2 measures of smoking were highly correlated and equally effective for identifying any smoking in a 30-day period among nondaily smokers.

Homish GG; Leonard KE. Testing methodologies to recruit adult drug-using couples. Addictive Behaviors 34(1): 96-99, 2009. (11 refs.)

Given the increased reliance on caller id, caller blocking, and answering machines, random digit dialing has become a less successful recruiting technique, especially among younger individuals. This pilot study tested the feasibility of using multi-step mailed survey methodology to obtain a random sample of adult, substance-using couples. Feasibility was assessed in terms of response rates and generalizability of the sample. A sample of 1000 names and addresses was purchased from a professional survey company, half of the sample received a $1 incentive and the rest did not receive the incentive. There were no other differences between the other procedures used. The response rate for the incentive group was significantly higher compared to the non-incentive group (66% vs. 47%, p < .001). Past month marijuana use was 4.6% compared to estimates from the US National Survey on Drug Use and Health for this region of 5.0%. Similarly, rates of heavy drinking and attitudes about drug use were also similar to other estimates. There were no differences on substance use for the incentive group compared to the non-incentive group. This pilot study demonstrated the feasibility of using a multi-step mailed survey to recruit a representative sample of adult, substance-using couples.

Houben K; Rothermund K; Wiers RW. Predicting alcohol use with a recoding-free variant of the Implicit Association Test. Addictive Behaviors 34(5): 487-489, 2009. (13 refs.)

Recently, a modified version of the Implicit Association Test (IAT), the IAT-RF (IAT-Recoding Free) was developed which prevents recoding processes by switching response assignments randomly between trials rather than between blocks. In this Study, the IAT-RF was used to measure and examine the predictive validity of recoding-free implicit alcohol associations with positive arousal. Findings with the IAT-RF demonstrated that alcohol was overall more strongly associated with negative sedation than with positive,arousal. However. more importantly, the size of this compatibility effect was positively correlated with alcohol use indicating that stronger implicit alcohol associations with positive arousal are related to increased drinking. Further, implicit alcohol associations with Positive arousal Measured with the IAT-RF also predicted unique variance in alcohol use above the variance explained by explicit measures. Hence, the present findings suggest that implicit associations with positive arousal may play all important role in drinking behavior, and demonstrate the validity of the IAT-RF as a measure of implicit alcohol associations.

Huizink AC. Moderate use of alcohol, tobacco and cannabis during pregnancy: New approaches and update on research findings. Reproductive Toxicology 28(2, Special Issue): 143-151, 2009. (102 refs.)

Interest in fetal origins of adverse offspring outcomes has grown extensively in the last decade. This has resulted in many published studies focusing on exposure in utero to substances and human offspring outcomes. Exposure to maternal substance use in pregnancy is believed to be a preventable hazard, and is therefore a main issue for public health concern and policy. However, an important question in human studies remains whether prenatal substance use exposure has an aetiological role in pathways to adverse developmental and behavioural outcomes via teratological effects. Recent insights and developments in research methodology will aid the adequate and more refined testing of associations between prenatal substance use and offspring outcomes. In particular, novel approaches could assist in disentangling the exposure to substance effects from correlated risk factors. The purpose of this manuscript is therefore to provide an overview of methodological issues involved in studies that focus on the association between maternal substance use during pregnancy and offspring's outcomes, to describe novel approaches to test these associations, and present some examples of new and well-designed studies and discuss their findings.

Iguchi MY; Ober AJ; Berry SH; Fain T; Heckathorn DD; Gorbach PM et al. Simultaneous recruitment of drug users and men who have sex with men in the United States and Russia using respondent-driven sampling: Sampling methods and implications. Journal of Urban Health 86(Special Issue, Supplement 1): S5-S31, 2009. (64 refs.)

The Sexual Acquisition and Transmission of HIV Cooperative Agreement Program (SATHCAP) examined the role of drug use in the sexual transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) from traditional high-risk groups, such as men who have sex with men (MSM) and drug users (D U), to lower risk groups in three US cities and in St. Petersburg, Russia. SATHCAP employed respondent-driven sampling (RDS) and a dual high-risk group sampling approach that relied on peer recruitment for a combined, overlapping sample of MSM and D U. The goal of the sampling approach was to recruit an RDS sample of MSM, D U, and individuals who were both MSM and D U (MSM/DU), as well as a sample of sex partners of MSM, D U, and MSM/DU and sex partners of sex partners. The approach efficiently yielded a sample of 8,355 participants, including sex partners, across all four sites. At the US sites-Los Angeles, Chicago, and Raleigh-Durham-the sample consisted of older (mean age=41 years), primarily black MSM and D U (both injecting and non-injecting); in St. Petersburg, the sample consisted of primarily younger (mean age=28 years) MSM and DU (injecting). The US sites recruited a large proportion of men who have sex with men and with women, an important group with high potential for establishing a generalized HIV epidemic involving women. The advantage of using the dual high-risk group approach and RDS was, for the most part, the large, efficiently recruited samples of MSM, DU, and MSM/DU. The disadvantages were a recruitment bias by race/ethnicity and income status (at the US sites) and under-enrollment of MSM samples because of short recruitment chains (at the Russian site).

Johnson EI; Barrault M; Nadeau L; Swendsen J. Feasibility and validity of computerized ambulatory monitoring in drug-dependent women. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 99(1-3): 322-326, 2009. (27 refs.)

Aim: To examine the feasibility and validity of computerized ambulatory monitoring in drug-dependent women. Method: 61 women recruited from public Substance abuse treatment centers in Montreal, Canada participated in the current study, 84% of whom reported past 30-day polysubstance use. Mood states, craving, and drug use were assessed by standard clinical instruments and by electronic interviews during 7-days of computerized ambulatory monitoring. Feasibility was assessed by examining compliance with intensive monitoring and equipment loss. Concurrent validity was assessed by examining the degree of correspondence of ambulatory data on craving, mood, and Substance use with clinic-based assessments of similar constructs. Result: Participants completed an average 80% of all electronic assessments and no data collection devices were lost or stolen. Relationships among mood, stress, consumption, and craving assessed in the electronic interviews conformed to well-established patterns, and evidence of concurrent validity were found between scores from standard clinical instruments and similar constructs in daily life. Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CESD) scores were positively related to sad mood reported during the electronic interviews (p = 0.001) and negatively related to happy mood states (p<0.001), explaining approximately 20% of the variance in each mood state. ASI drug use seventy scores were positively associated with craving (p<0.001) and substance use (p<0.001), and explained 46% and 30% of these outcomes, respectively. Conclusion: Computerized ambulatory monitoring is a feasible and valid data collection strategy in drug-dependent individuals.

Kamholz B; Gulliver SB; Helstrom A; Morissette S. Implications of participant self-selection for generalizability: Who participates in smoking laboratory research? Substance Use & Misuse 44(3): 343-356, 2009. (43 refs.)

The generalizability of data from laboratory smoking studies using volunteer samples is debatable. We tracked potential participants from first contact with research staff through screening to study completion. We found that a minority of individuals were ultimately enrolled in the study. Failure to enroll was as often a function of participant lack of attendance at the laboratory as a function of ineligibility. With some exceptions, groups of potential participants were similar regarding demographic characteristics and substance use history. These findings support the generalizability of the sample and highlight the importance of documenting details of study eligibility and participation. The study's limitations are noted.

Kendler KS; Myers J; Potter J; Opalesky J. A web-based study of personality, psychopathology and substance use in twin, other relative and relationship pairs. Twin Research and Human Genetics 12(2): 137-141, 2009. (24 refs.)

Web-based studies have become increasingly common in the social sciences, but have been rare in genetic epidemiology in general and twin studies in particular. We here review the methods, validity checks and preliminary correlational data from an on-line questionnaire collected from 2005-2008. During this time period, 44,112 individuals completed the questionnaire. This sample was 65.3% female, 85.4% 18 years or older, 72.0% Caucasian and had a mean educational level of 12.2 years. The sample included 609 twin, 333 sibling and 201 parent-offspring pairs as well as 342 dating partners, 313 1 significant other' pairs, 327 spouses and 2,316 friend pairs. A range of checks suggested low levels of invalid data. Correlations for personality, substance use and misuse, lifetime major depression, social attitudes, educational status, and height and weight were broadly similar to those obtained previously using conventional assessment methods. Web-based studies are a relatively easy and inexpensive way to ascertain large numbers of individuals, although obtaining twin pairs is more difficult, and female and monozygotic pairs are overrepresented. The sample is diverse and pair resemblance is generally similar to that obtained using interviews or mailed questionnaires.

Kerr WC; Patterson D; Greenfield TK. Differences in the measured alcohol content of drinks between black, white and Hispanic men and women in a US national sample. Addiction 104(9): 1503-1511, 2009. (26 refs.)

Aims: To measure and describe drink alcohol content differences between Hispanic, non-Hispanic white and non-Hispanic black men and women in the United States. Design: A telephone survey re-interview of 397 respondents who participated originally in the 2005 National Alcohol Survey, of whom 306 provided complete information on home drinks. Setting: United States. Participants: Adults aged 18 years and older from across the United States. Measurements: Direct measurement by respondents of simulated drink pours in respondents' own glassware using a provided beaker and reported beverage brands were used to calculate drink alcohol content. Findings: Black men were found to have the largest overall mean drink alcohol content at 0.79 oz (23 ml) of alcohol. This was significantly larger than the mean for white men or for black women and added 30% to black men's monthly alcohol intake when applied to their reported number of drinks. Spirits drinks were found to be particularly large for men. Multivariate models indicated that drink alcohol content differences are attributable more to income and family structure differences than to unmeasured cultural factors tied to race or ethnicity per se. Models predicting alcohol-related consequences and dependence indicate that adjusting drink alcohol content improves model fit and reduces differences between race/ethnicity defined groups. Conclusions: Differences in drink alcohol content by gender, race/ethnicity and beverage type choice should be considered in comparisons of drinking patterns and alcohol-related outcomes. Observed differences can be explained partially by measured characteristics regarding family structure and income.

Khadjesari Z; Murray E; Kalaitzaki E; White IR; McCambridge J; Godfrey C et al. Test-retest reliability of an online measure of past week alcohol consumption (the TOT-AL), and comparison with face-to-face interview. Addictive Behaviors 34(4): 337-342, 2009. (29 refs.)

Objective: This paper reports on the development of a new online measure of beverage-specific past week alcohol consumption (the TOT-AL), its test-retest reliability, and comparability with the face-to-face approach of ascertaining alcohol intake. Methods: University Students participating in the reliability study completed the TOT-AL twice on the same day with at least 3 h apart. Students in the comparability study attended a face-to-face interview and completed the TOT-AL on the same day, in a randomised order. at least 3 11 apart. Results: There was a strong correlation between the repeated measurements of the TOT-AL(r=0.99; 95% CI: 0.98. 0.99)and between the units calculated by the TOT-AL and the face-to face interview (r=0.97; 95% CI: 0.95,0.99). A high level of agreement between measurements was also observed in a Bland-Altman analysis. Conclusions: The TOT-AL is a reliable, time efficient means of ascertaining alcohol intake. equivalent to that obtained face-to-face. These findings support the use of this approach to online alcohol assessment in populations with access to the Internet.

Kuhns JB; Clodfelter TA. Illicit drug-related psychopharmacological violence: The current understanding within a causal context. (review). Aggression and Violent Behavior 14(1): 69-78, 2009. (136 refs.)

This Study reviews past research on psychopharmacological violence associated with illicit drug use within the criteria for causality. There appears to be prior evidence suggesting that illicit drug Use and violent offending are related in certain circumstances; and other studies conclude that illicit drug use may be correlated with violent victimization. However, those studies that also adequately assessed temporal order do not strongly support an offender-based psychopharmacological link: and those that explored violent victimization are limited and inconclusive. More importantly, there are very few criminological efforts that assess the impact of illicit drug use on violence while also controlling for alternative individual-level causal explanations such as hormonal influences, genetic factors, variations in substance metabolism rates and intoxication decay, psychological functioning, concurrent alcohol and/or other drug use, gender differences, and illicit drug dosage. We offer suggestions for improving future assessments of illicit drug-related violent offending and victimization including capturing dosage and purity data, gauging temporal proximity of offender and victim intoxication relative to violent outcomes, and separating psychopharmacological factors (e.g., offender motivation and victim vulnerability) from economic and systemic circumstances.

Kuntsche E; Robert B. Short message service (SMS) technology in alcohol research: A feasibility study. Alcohol and Alcoholism 44(4): 423-428, 2009. (36 refs.)

Aim: The aim of this study was to describe the feasibility, advantages and limitations of the combined use of Internet and SMS technology to assess alcohol use, and to test whether an SMS sent in the evening (i.e. prior to a possible drinking event) changed the respondents' assessment, made on the following day, of the number of drinks consumed. Participants: Seventy young adults (mean age 22.7) were recruited through face-to-face contacts, e-mails and Internet advertisements. Design and setting: Participants completed a baseline assessment via Internet and were randomly assigned to two conditions (with and without evening SMS). Over four weekends, both Friday and Saturday night, drinking was assessed via SMS questions sent the next day to the participants' cell phones. Results: A high retention rate (75% in total) was obtained across all three recruitment conditions. The number of drinks indicated in the SMS survey was strongly correlated with the usual quantity assessed via Internet and did not differ depending on whether an additional SMS question was sent in the evening or not. Conclusion: The new method shares some of the advantages of conventional diaries but overcomes most of the limitations: it is easy to use, cost-effective and suitable for large-scale surveys. Application restrictions and further developments are discussed.

La Torre G; de Waure C; Specchia ML; Nicolotti N; Capizzi S; Bilotta A et al. Does quality of observational studies affect the results of a meta-analysis? The case of cigarette smoking and pancreatic cancer. (review). Pancreas 38(3): 241-247, 2009. (46 refs.)

Objectives: A meta-analysis of observational studies on association between cigarette smoking and pancreatic cancer was performed to focus, particularly, on the role of the studies' quality in affecting meta-analysis results. Methods: A bibliographic search was carried out on PubMed and EMBASE databases until February 15, 2008. Key words were "pancreatic neoplasms," "pancreatic cancer," "smoking," "smoke," "cigarette," "case-control studies," and "cohort studies." Studies about cigarette smoking and pancreatic cancer were selected and assessed on quality. STATA 9.0 was used. Results: Six cohort studies and 24 case-control studies were selected, with median quality scores of 8 (range, 3) and 10 (range, 8), respectively. Pooled case-control studies' odds ratio (OR) and cohort studies' risk ratio were, respectively, 1.45 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.33-1.57) and 1.78 (95% CI, 1.64-1.92). After stratifying for quality scoring, high-quality-scored case-control studies yielded an OR of 1.38 (95% CI, 1.27-1.49), whereas the others gave an OR of 1.52 (95% CI, 1.34-1.73). The results of meta-analysis for cohort studies showed a risk ratio of 1.74 (95% CI, 1.61-1.90) and of 2.10 (95% CI, 1.64-2.67), respectively, for high- and low-quality score studies. Conclusions: There is evidence that cigarette smoking is an important risk factor for pancreatic cancer, but the estimate of the association greatly relies on the studies' quality.

Magruder KM; Ouyang B; Miller S; Tilley BC. Retention of under-represented minorities in drug abuse treatment studies. Clinical Trials 6(3): 252-260, 2009. (29 refs.)

Background Differential attrition by minority participants can be as limiting to interpreting final results as poor initial recruitment of minority participants. This is especially important in drug abuse treatment studies, as minorities are over-represented in substance abuse clinical treatment programs. Purpose The specific aims of this secondary data analysis were to: (1) determine if there are differences in study retention rates by race/ethnicity and age, and (2) explore other client characteristics, as well as protocol and treatment program factors, that could account for differential retention rates. Methods We conducted a secondary analysis using data from 1737 participants in the first six clinical trials whose databases were locked in the NIDA Clinical Trials Network. Protocol level characteristics were also abstracted from these studies, and we used data from a study which assessed characteristics of community treatment programs that participated in these studies. Logistic regression was used to study the effect on retention of: client, protocol, and program characteristics. Results In the model of client characteristics, a significant age by race/ethnicity interaction term was detected based on a threshold of 0.1, with younger African Americans having the lowest odds of retention. Primary drug of abuse was also a significant factor in determining study retention, with heroin, methadone, and opiate users having the greatest odds of retention and polydrug users the lowest. Similar analyses testing treatment program characteristics found that only the presence of HIV risk screening and decreasing levels of female admissions (as a percent of total admissions) were related to study retention. In our final model, there was an effect of age, but not race/ethnicity, with younger participants having lower odds of retention. A multivariable model including protocol variables could not be developed due to the high correlation among protocol variables. Limitations We excluded those of multi-race/ethnicity and those from minority groups other than Hispanic or African American due to small numbers. Additionally, only three therapy types were represented among the six studies. Some potential variables that would influence retention, such as client housing, and client comorbidities, the race/ethnicity and gender of the staff who conducted study follow-up assessments, and reasons for loss to follow-up, were not collected by the CTN. Conclusions: Although in our client model older African Americans and Caucasians had the greatest odds of retention and younger African Americans the lowest, in our final model, only age was significantly related to study retention. Additionally, primary drug of abuse, having HIV risk screening as a program benefit, and lower percentages of female admissions were significantly related to study retention. Efforts should be made to increase the study retention of younger participants to improve the validity and generalizability of drug abuse treatment study results.

Milne BJ; Caspi A; Crump R; Poulton R; Rutter M; Sears MR et al. The validity of the family history screen for assessing family history of mental disorders. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B. Neuropsychiatric Genetics 150B(1): 41-49, 2009. (54 refs.)

There is a need to collect psychiatric family history information quickly and economically (e.g., for genome-wide studies and primary care practice). We sought to evaluate the validity of family history reports using a brief screening instrument, the Family History Screen (FHS). We assessed the validity of parents' reports of seven psychiatric disorders in their adult children probands from the Dunedin Study (n = 959, 52% male), using the proband's diagnosis as the criterion outcome. We also investigated whether there were informant characteristics that enhanced accuracy of reporting or were associated with reporting biases. Using reports from multiple informants, we obtained sensitivities ranging from 31.7% (alcohol dependence) to 60.0% (conduct disorder) and specificities ranging from 76.0% (major depressive episode) to 97.1% (suicide attempt). There was little evidence that any informant characteristics enhanced accuracy of reporting. However, three reporting biases were found: the probability of reporting disorder in the proband was greater for informants with versus without a disorder, for female versus male informants, and for younger versus older informants. We conclude that the FHS is as valid as other family history instruments (e.g., the FH-RDC, FISC), and its brief administration time makes it a cost-effective method for collecting family history data. To avoid biasing results, researchers who aim to compare groups in terms of their family history should ensure that the informants reporting on these groups do not differ in terms of age, sex or personal history of disorder.

Morley KC; Teesson M; Sannibale C; Haber PS. Sample bias from different recruitment strategies in a randomised controlled trial for alcohol dependence. Drug and Alcohol Review 28(3): 222-229, 2009. (40 refs.)

Introduction and Aims. Participants may be recruited from diverse sources for randomised controlled trials (RCT) of treatments for alcohol dependence. A mixed recruitment strategy might facilitate recruitment and increase generalisability at the expense of introducing systematic selection bias. The current study aims to compare the effects of recruitment method on socio-demographics, baseline illness characteristics, treatment retention and treatment outcome measures. Design and Methods. A secondary analysis from a previous 12 week RCT of naltrexone, acamprosate and placebo for alcohol dependence was conducted. Participants (n = 169) were obtained via four channels of recruitment including in-patient and outpatient referral, live media and print media solicitation. Baseline parameters, retention in treatment and treatment outcomes were compared in these groups. Results. Relative to in-patient subjects, those recruited via live and print media had significantly lower scores on taking steps, less in-patient rehabilitation admissions and less previous abstinence before entering the trial. Subjects recruited via print media had significantly lower scores of alcohol dependence relative to all other modes recruitment. There were no differences between recruitment strategies on treatment retention or compliance. At outcome, no significant effect of recruitment method was detected. Discussion and Conclusions. These results suggest that different recruitment methods may be sourcing subjects with different baseline characteristics of illness. Nonetheless, these differences did not significantly impact on treatment retention or outcome, suggesting that in this population it was appropriate to recruit subjects from mixed sources.

Norton TR; Lazev AB; Schnoll RA; Miller SM. The impact of email recruitment on our understanding of college smoking. Addictive Behaviors 34(6-7): 531-535, 2009. (34 refs.)

Email recruitment is growing in popularity; however, this convenience sampling method may yield very different results from prior convenience sampling methods. Participants in the current study were 825 undergraduate students, 446 recruited through a campus wide email and 379 recruited through Introductory Psychology courses. who completed an on-line survey on smoking and health. Outcomes varied significantly by group. Introductory Psychology students reported higher smoker self-concept, more pros of smoking, and were more likely to view smoking as a method of negative affect reduction. The current study suggests that recruitment method can bias our understanding of smoking behaviors among college students.

Orford J. 'Let's keep in touch: You know it makes sense'. (commentary). Addiction 104(6): 972-973, 2009. (7 refs.)

This is a commentary on the article by Scott C. K., Dennis M. L. "Results from two randomized clinical trials evaluating the impact of quarterly recovery management checkups with adult chronic substance users." It speaks to the need for sufficiently long periods of follow-up to adeaquately assess the impact of treatment.

Oudejans SCC; Schippers GM; Merkx MJM; Schramade MH; Koeter MWJ; van den Brink W. Feasibility and validity of low-budget telephonic follow-up interviews in routine outcome monitoring of substance abuse treatment. Addiction 104(7): 1138-1146, 2009. (31 refs.)

Routine outcome monitoring (ROM) is receiving growing attention. However, follow-up interviews are time-consuming and costly. This study examines the feasibility and validity of low-budget telephonic follow-up interviews for ROM in a substance abuse treatment centre (SATC). Observational study using data collected for routine outcome monitoring. The study was performed in a SATC in an urban area in the Netherlands. Feasibility and validity were assessed on data of 2325 patients. Data on pre-treatment socio-demographic and clinical characteristics were collected using electronic patient records (EPRs) and the European version of the Addiction Severity Index (EuropASI). Data on intensity of treatment were also collected through the EPRs. Telephonic follow-up interviews were conducted between 9 and 10 months after intake. A 53% follow-up rate was achieved; 35% of the patients could not be contacted, 3% explicitly refused and in 8% other reasons accounted for non-participation. About 50% of the interviews took place in the intended time-frame. Costs were 40 ($57) per completed interview. There were indications of selection bias, because patients with cocaine as their primary problem and patients with polysubstance abuse were under-represented in the follow-up sample; the presence of these disorders is associated with negative treatment outcome. Implementing telephonic low-budget follow-up interviews for ROM is feasible, but selection bias threatens internal validity of data, limiting generalization to the total treatment population. Increased efforts to track patients for follow-up may improve generalization.

Pascolo PB; Carniel R; Pinese B. Human stability in the erect stance: Alcohol effects and audio-visual perturbations. Journal of Biomechanics 42(4): 504-509, 2009. (14 refs.)

Audio-visual perturbations were coupled with the consumption of an alcoholic beverage to simulate the possible perturbation affecting people at disco clubs, and the effects measured with a stabilometric platform. Methods: We studied the statokinesigrams (SKG) of 14 volunteers; 11 of them were healthy, 3 were injured. We made a series of numerical tests using a stabilometric platform to record the statokinesigrams. The tests were carried out using statistical methods, time-series analysis, and applying the "p" parameter, recently proposed by Pascolo and Marini [2006. On the introduction of a new parameter for the analysis of posture. Europa Medicophysica, 42, 145-149] as a new tool to evaluate the reactions of the central control system with respect to posture-affecting diseases (for instance Parkinson) and perturbations. Conclusion: This work shows that it is theoretically possible to define non-invasive parameters able to distinguish sober subjects from drunk subjects, with an evaluation that only uses a stabilometric platform.

Petry NM. First steps first. (editorial). Addiction 104(7): 1070-1071, 2009. (7 refs.)

This is a commentary on the article by Rodgers, Caldwell and Butterworth, "Measuring gambling participation". Addiction 2009; 104: 1065-9. The author notes that they argue cogently for the need to expand gambling research along a number of dimensions. In many ways, the gambling literature is 20-30 years behind the alcohol literature. By applying lessons learned from alcohol research perhaps the gambling field can catch up, but the gambling field faces some unique challenges as well. The need for longitudinal assessments in other areas is noted, such as examining predictors of gambling participation and natural recovery. While such relationships are certainly important to evaluate and longitudinal perspectives are valuable, it is at least equally, if not more, imperative to start from a strong cross-sectional viewpoint. Few data are available to address how measures of recent gambling participation (days, time, dollars) relate to concurrent measures of gambling harm.

Pickett KE; Rathouz PJ; Dukic V; Kasza K; Niessner M; Wright RJ et al. The complex enterprise of modelling prenatal exposure to cigarettes: What is 'enough'? Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 23(2): 160-170, 2009. (29 refs.)

While there is a burgeoning body of research linking smoking during pregnancy to problem behaviour in offspring, a major criticism of this work has been the crude measurement of exposure in these studies (e.g. retrospective, self-reported only) that could lead to biased estimates. To address this issue, we used a pregnancy cohort with repeated prospective measures of exposure as well as biological assays to generate estimates of exposure patterns using a range of modelling techniques. In this paper we report on the analytical approaches we have developed, including patterns of exposure over time and best-estimate approaches that combine self-report and cotinine measures, and compare their predictive value in relation to different dimensions of fetal growth as a first step towards examining the utility of greater precision of exposure measurement. Surprisingly, in this sample the more complex assessments of exposure, including biological measures, generally did not perform better than simple indicators of exposure based on repeated self-report measures, with one exception: a combined self-report cotinine 'best estimate' of third trimester exposure was uniquely associated with lower brain : body ratio. Further study is needed using more sophisticated cotinine assays and testing prediction of a range of outcomes to ascertain whether these findings represent true differences or are specific to the sample, methods and outcomes used. Such research will inform the development of guidelines for adequate exposure characterisation in developmental studies.

Polzin GM; Wu WJ; Yan XZ; McCraw JM; Abdul-Salaam S; Tavakoli AD et al. Estimating smokers' mouth-level exposure to select mainstream smoke constituents from discarded cigarette filter butts. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 11(7): 868-874, 2009. (21 refs.)

Standardized machine smoking measurements are poor predictors of exposure. We have refined a method using the solanesol deposited in discarded cigarette butts as a marker for estimating deliveries of mainstream smoke constituents. Developing a fast and accurate method for measuring solanesol in cigarette filters to assess tobacco smoke intake could provide a way to assess how people smoke under natural conditions. We have developed and validated a new, lower-cost, high-throughput method to measure the solanesol content in discarded cigarette filter butts and correlated these measurements with mainstream smoke deliveries of nicotine and tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs). Cigarettes were machine smoked under a variety of conditions to cover a wide range of nicotine deliveries and solanesol levels in the spent cigarette filter. Following machine smoking, a 1-cm portion of filter material, measured from the mouth end, was removed from the cigarette butts for analysis. Although an isotopically labeled solanesol analog is currently not commercially available, we achieved excellent quantitative results using a structurally similar compound, geranylgeraniol, as an internal standard (IS). After spiking with IS and solvent extracted, solanesol extracts were then analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled with a single-quadrupole mass analyzer. Analysis was carried out using manual preparation as well as a high-throughput 48-well format using automated liquid handlers. Recoveries of solanesol from cigarette butts exceeded 95% with excellent precision and exhibited excellent linearity for both preparation methods. In addition, we show that the mouth-level exposure for both nicotine and TSNAs may be estimated by their relation to the solanesol retained in the cigarette filter. We believe that this method provides excellent versatility and throughput for the estimation of mouth-level exposure to a wide range of toxins in cigarette smoke under naturalistic conditions. In addition, this method allows a far more accurate measure of exposure both from a single cigarette as well as from daily smoking.

Ramchandani VA; Plawecki M; Li TK; O'Connor S. Intravenous ethanol infusions can mimic the time course of breath alcohol concentrations following oral alcohol administration in healthy volunteers. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 33(5): 938-944, 2009. (27 refs.)

Our previous studies have used intravenous (IV) clamping methods to demonstrate that family history positive (FHP) subjects exhibit a greater initial response to alcohol than family history negative (FHN) subjects. These results differ from other studies of family history of alcoholism (FHA) influences, most of which have used an oral alcohol challenge, suggesting that the route of administration may influence both the response to alcohol and FHA-related differences in response. To examine this possibility, one approach would be to directly compare responses following oral and IV alcohol administration in the same subjects. There is, however, a 3- to 4-fold variance, between- and within-subjects, in the breath alcohol concentrations (BrACs) following oral alcohol administration. Thus, our objective was to characterize the between-subject variability in the time course of BrACs following oral alcohol administration in healthy volunteers and to develop an IV infusion method to mimic the BrAC-time course attained following oral alcohol in the same subject. This was a 2-session study in young adult, healthy, nondependent drinkers. In the first session, subjects ingested an oral dose of alcohol, based on total body water, to achieve a target peak BrAC of 80 mg%. In the second session, subjects received an IV infusion of ethanol designed to achieve the same BrAC time course as that achieved in the first session. The individualized infusion-rate profile was precomputed using a physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model for alcohol with model parameters adjusted to the individual's physiology. The peak BrACs (C-max), times of peak BrAC (T-max), and the areas under the BrAC vs. time curve (AUC) were compared between sessions to assess how closely the BrAC exposure during the IV infusion session mimicked the exposure following oral alcohol. The time course of BrACs following oral alcohol administration showed a high degree of between-subject variability. Mean C-max, T-max, and AUC did not differ by gender, indicating that calculation of oral doses based on total body water results in comparable BrAC-time courses, on average, for females and males. The IV infusion driven BrAC-time profiles demonstrated good fidelity to the BrAC-time curves resulting from oral alcohol: the mean %difference in C-max and AUC were both 11%, while the mean %difference for T-max was 27%. This degree of variability is less than half that seen across individuals following oral alcohol administration, which was substantial [coefficient of variation (%CV) ranging from 22 to 52%]. Despite the use of standardized doses and controlled experimental conditions, there was substantial between-subject variability in the BrAC time course following oral administration of alcohol. The PBPK-model-based infusion method can mimic the BrACs attained with oral alcohol for individual subjects. This method provides a platform to evaluate effects attributable to the route of administration on the response to alcohol, as well as the influence of determinants such as family history of alcoholism on the alcohol response.

Rehm J; Frick U. Alcohol use as a risk factor for burden of disease: Methodological considerations. (editorial). Addiction Research & Theory 17(1): 99-103, 2009. (21 refs.)

Roeder W; Karcirk K; Glantz S. Smoking in the movies in the 1940s. Ethnicity & Disease 19(2, Supplement 3): S28-S29, 2009. (0 refs.)

This study examined tobacco use in a random sample of 20 of the top revenue films from 1940-1949. The compiled data from this time period was combined with data from an earlier study of tobacco use in films made during 1950 to 2002 by Glantz et al. We measured the prevalence of tobacco use, recorded per incident, per viewing hour. We obtained movie data of the top 20 1940s films from the Worldwide Box Office Internet site. All films were coded by a single coder. In earlier research, it was validated that coding by a single coder provided accurate results as opposed to comparing results of multiple coders. The purpose of this study was to determine and prove that the presentation of smoking in motion pictures is not accurately portrayed.

Scholz U; Nagy G; Goehner W; Luszczynska A; Kliegel M. Changes in self-regulatory cognitions as predictors of changes in smoking and nutrition behaviour. Psychology & Health 24(5): 545-561, 2009. (46 refs.)

Most longitudinal, correlational studies on health-behaviour change examine effects of Time1 social-cognitive predictors on subsequent behaviour. In contrast, our research focusses on associations between changes in predictors with change in behaviour. The Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) distinguishes between motivational predictors for intention formation and volitional predictors for behavioural change and served as theoretical basis. Two online-studies were launched targeting different behaviours (low-fat diet, smoking), different samples (Study 1: N = 469; Study 2: N = 441) and different time spans (Study 1: 3 months, Study 2: 4 weeks). Data were analysed by means of structural equation modelling with latent difference scores. Both studies resulted in almost parallel prediction patterns. Change in risk awareness and change in outcome expectancies did not result in change in intentions, whereas change in self-efficacy was of crucial importance. Change in behaviour was associated with change in action planning and action control over and above the effects of intentions. In one study, increases in self-efficacy yielded increases in behaviour change. Results demonstrate that change in action planning and especially action control was of great importance for behaviour change across two different behaviours. Analysing change in social-cognitive predictors allows drawing precise conclusions for interventions.

Thomas PD; Mi HY; Swan GE; Lerman C; Benowitz N; Tyndale RF et al. A systems biology network model for genetic association studies of nicotine addiction and treatment. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics 19(7): 538-551, 2009. (78 refs.)

Objective Interpreting genome-scale genetic association data, particularly for complex diseases and phenotypes, requires extensive use of prior knowledge across a broad range of potential biological and environmental influences, spanning many scientific subdisciplines. We suggest that known or hypothesized disease risk factors, and causal mechanisms, can be represented using an ontology, a computational specification of a set of concepts and the relations between them. Methods: We have integrated the expertise of multiple investigators in nicotine pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, nicotine dependence, and clinical smoking cessation outcomes, and represented this knowledge in an ontology-based network model. Our model spans multiple scales, from molecules, genes and cellular pathways, to complex behavioral phenotypes and even environmental factors. To leverage previous and ongoing work in the field of ontology development, we adopt, expand upon and relate elements from existing ontologies whenever possible. Results: We discuss several applications of our ontology: to support interdisciplinary research by graphically representing a complex scientific theory, to facilitate metaanalysis across different studies, to highlight potential interactions, and to support statistical analysis and causal modeling. We demonstrate that our ontology can focus hypothesis testing on areas supported by current theory. Conclusion: We describe how an ontology-based computational representation can be applied to disease risk factors and mechanisms, enabling the use of prior knowledge in large-scale genetic association studies in general. In specific, we have developed an initial Smoking Behavior Risk Ontology to support studies related to the pharmacogenetics of nicotine addiction and treatment.

Traylor AC; Bordnick PS; Carter BL. Using virtual reality to assess young adult smokers' attention to cues. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 12(4): 373-378, 2009. (22 refs.)

Cigarette smokers, when confronted with cues associated with smoking, evidence strong reactions, including increased attentional bias toward those smoking-related cues. These reactions have not been extensively studied in young adult smokers, a group that research suggests may respond differently than adults or adolescent smokers. Furthermore, the impact of olfactory cues, such as cigarette smoke, on attentional bias has not been explored in young adult smokers. In this pilot study, 20 nicotine-dependent young adult smokers were randomized to receive scent cues or no scent cues and were exposed to four virtual reality (VR) rooms containing sensory and social content, including smoking or neutral cues. Participants entered a neutral VR room, followed by two different smoking VR rooms, and closed with the same neutral room. Subjective attention to smoking cues and thoughts about smoking responses were recorded upon exiting each room. Significant increases in attention to cues and thoughts about smoking were found when young adult smokers were exposed to VR smoking environments, but the inclusion of olfactory cues did not result in significantly higher attention to cues or thoughts about smoking. Results suggest that while further research is necessary to understand the impact of olfactory cues, VR appears to be an effective methodology for cue exposure studies exploring attentional bias in young adult smokers.

Voas RB; Romano E; Peck R. Validity of surrogate measures of alcohol involvement when applied to nonfatal crashes. Accident Analysis and Prevention 41(3): 522-530, 2009. (18 refs.)

Since the 1970s, nighttime fatal crashes have been used as a surrogate measure for alcohol-related fatalities for crashes for which more direct measures were absent. The validity of this approach was confirmed in 1985 but has not been re-evaluated since. Although this measure has also been applied to identify alcohol involvement in nonfatal crashes, its validity when applied to nonfatal cases has never been determined. The objective of this study was to evaluate the appropriateness of using nighttime crashes as surrogate measures for alcohol impairment when applied to fatal and nonfatal injury and property damage only (PDO) crashes. To do so. we used data from a crash-control design study collected at the roadside in two U.S. states between 1997 and 1999, as well as from the 1997-1999 and 2004-2006 Fatality Analysis Reporting System. The outcome of this study confirms the validity of using nighttime crashes as a surrogate measure for alcohol-related fatalities and supports the use of after-midnight crashes for measuring alcohol involvement in nonfatal and PDO crashes when the number of late-night crashes permits.

Webb G; Shakeshaft A; Sanson-Fisher R; Havard A. A systematic review of work-place interventions for alcohol-related problems. (review). Addiction 104(3): 365-377, 2009. (28 refs.)

The aims of this study were to (1) gauge any improvement in methodological quality of work-place interventions addressing alcohol problems; and (2) to determine which interventions most effectively reduce work-place-related alcohol problems. A literature search was undertaken of the data bases, Ovid Medline, PsychINFO, Web of Science, Scopus, HSELINE, OSHLINE and NIOSHTIC-2 for papers published between January 1995 and September 2007 (inclusive). Search terms varied, depending on the database. Papers were included for analysis if they reported on interventions conducted at work-places with the aim of reducing alcohol problems. Methodological adequacy of the studies was assessed using a method derived from the Cochrane Collaboration guidelines. Ten papers reporting on work-place alcohol interventions were located. Only four studies employed randomized controlled trials (RCT), but all these had methodological problems. Weaknesses in all studies related to representativeness of samples, consent and participation rates, blinding, post-test time-frames, contamination and reliability, and validity of measures used. All except one study reported statistically significant differences in measures such as reduced alcohol consumption, binge drinking and alcohol problems. The literature review revealed few methodologically adequate studies of work-place alcohol interventions. Study designs, types of interventions, measures employed and types of work-places varied considerably, making comparison of results difficult. However, it appears from the evidence that brief interventions, interventions contained within health and life-style checks, psychosocial skills training and peer referral have potential to produce beneficial results.

Webb MS; Seigers D; Wood EA. Recruiting African American smokers into intervention research: Relationships between recruitment strategies and participant characteristics. Research in Nursing and Health 32(1): 86-95, 2009. (31 refs.)

The purposes of this study were to (a) to describe an 8-month recruitment campaign to enroll African American smokers (N=249) into a randomized controlled trial and (b) examine characteristics of participants recruited through proactive (face-to-face), reactive (television, radio, or newspaper ads inviting participants), and combination (both reactive and proactive) approaches. Reactive recruitment was most successful (43%), followed by proactive (31%), and combination (26%) recruitment. Compared to proactive recruitment, reactive recruitment was associated with lower nicotine dependence, and greater readiness to quit, processes of change engagement, and acculturation. Combination recruitment was associated with lower nicotine dependence and greater readiness to quit. The differences according to recruitment strategy could be used to tailor recruitment strategies for African American smokers.

Whitehead T; Metayer C; Ward MH; Nishioka MG; Gunier R; Colt JS et al. Is house-dust nicotine a good surrogate for household smoking? American Journal of Epidemiology 169(9): 1113-1123, 2009. (32 refs.)

The literature is inconsistent regarding associations between parental smoking and childhood leukemia, possibly because previous studies used self-reported smoking habits as surrogates for children's true exposures to cigarette smoke. Here, the authors investigated the use of nicotine concentrations in house dust as measures of children's exposure to cigarette smoke in 469 households from the Northern California Childhood Leukemia Study (1999-2007). House dust was collected by using high-volume surface samplers and household vacuum cleaners and was analyzed for nicotine via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Using multivariable linear regression, the authors evaluated the effects of self-reported parental smoking, parental demographics, house characteristics, and other covariates on house-dust nicotine concentrations. They observed that nicotine concentrations in house dust were associated with self-reported smoking for periods of months and years before dust collection. Furthermore, the authors found that the relation between nicotine dust levels and self-reported smoking varied by parental age and socioeconomic status. These findings suggest that house-dust nicotine concentrations reflect long-term exposures to cigarette smoke in the home and that they may be less biased surrogates for children's exposures to cigarette smoke than self-reported smoking habits.

Wrieden WL; Anderson AS. Measurement of food and alcohol intake in relation to chronic liver disease. Statistical Methods in Medical Research 18(3): 285-301, 2009. (65 refs.)

It is well established that the consumption of alcohol is implicated in both the cause and progression of chronic liver disease. The quantity of drink that is consumed, the pattern of drinking and type of alcoholic beverages consumed are all possible factors in disease aetiology. The impact of specific dietary components on the cause and progression of chronic liver disease is unclear although it is known that obesity, and hence the over-consumption of energy, is a predictor of fatty liver. Work to elucidate the role of both diet and alcohol in the aetiology of liver disease is hindered by the methods currently available to measure dietary (including alcohol) intake. The validity and reliability of retrospective methods of assessing diet are limited by their reliance on memory and, for the 24 h recall, the short-time period of intake assessed and its inability to assess variability across the week. Prospective methods which measure food and drink intake at the time of consumption, and include weighed or estimated food diaries, are useful for prospective cohort studies but are expensive and have a high respondent burden. For estimation of alcohol intake retrospectively, the Cognitive Lifetime Drinking questionnaire, which prompts responses using a lifetime calendar, is a useful tool but still depends on memory. More work is required to develop valid, reliable and easily administered tools for measurement of both diet and alcohol.