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CORK Bibliography: Prevention and the Media

46 citations. January, 2009 to present

Prepared: December 2011

Al-Bedah AM; Qureshi NA; Al-Guhaimani HI; Basahi JA. The Global Youth Tobacco Survey-2007: Comparison with the Global Youth Tobacco Survey 2001-2002 in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Medical Journal 31(9): 1036-1043, 2010. (22 refs.)

Objectives: To primarily describe both smoking pattern in the youth population and a comparison with the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) in 2001-2002. Methods: The standard 2-stage methodology and a cross-sectional design were used to select randomly a representative sample of intermediate schools, classes, and students from all regions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia from January to June 2007. Result: Comparing results with the 2001 GYTS, the prevalence of ever and current smoking, use of other tobacco products, and initiation of smoking by never smokers in the next year increased among males, but with improvement in the students' knowledge and attitudes towards smokers. The second-hand tobacco smoke items were not distinguished, however, one or both parent smokers increased by 6% over 6 years. Media anti-smoking messages and awareness improved, however, the widespread display and proliferation of items with a cigarette brand logo on it, encourages participants to buy more cigarettes. Teaching hazards of smoking to students improved, however, the reasons why people of their age smoke were not discussed interactively. Females less than 18 years of age (minors) were not denied cigarette purchase compared to male participants of the same age. Conclusion: The National Tobacco Control Programs is apparently working effectively but differentially against smoking. The program needs to be evaluated systematically and accordingly and intensified further to reduce smoking among youths in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Alday J; Murukutla N; Cedillo C; Johns P; Monteiro A; Wakefield M. Smoke-free Sao Paulo: A campaign evaluation and the case for sustained mass media investment. Salud Publica de Mexico 52(Supplement 2): S216-S225, 2010. (10 refs.)

Although evidence from high-income countries suggests that mass media campaigns can increase knowledge of tobacco harms and encourage smoking cessation, there is little evidence of this from developing countries, particularly related to campaigns that seek to increase support for smoke-free places and laws.Two campaigns that ran in Sao Paulo, Brazil during implementation of a smoke-free law in Sao Paulo were evaluated to assess their effectiveness in changing attitudes and creating support for the law, The campaigns were evaluated through street-intercept surveys conducted in early July and late August in Sao Paulo (Ns=603; 615). Findings reveal that mass communications can generate support for smoke-free laws and underscore the importance of running campaigns that are both well-funded and that use harder-hitting, more graphic messages.

Anderson R. Comparison of indirect sources of efficacy information in pretesting messages for campaigns to prevent drunken driving. Journal of Public Relations Research 21(4): 428-454, 2009. (77 refs.)

Enabling publics to remove the constraints that prevent health enhancement is the focus of much scholarly research and professional practice. This experiment tested the impact of 2 forms of symbolic modeling and verbal persuasion on self-efficacy beliefs and intentions to prevent a friend from driving drunk. Three efficacy-enhancing public service announcements tested participants' beliefs in their confidence to intervene successfully. As predicted, behavioral and verbal modeling engendered greater perceived self-efficacy and behavioral intentions than did verbal persuasion, with behavioral modeling registering the greatest effects. Implications for designing campaigns of self-directed change to prevent drunken driving among college students are discussed, as well as possible directions for research on self-efficacy and the situational theory of publics.

Anderson DM. Does information matter? The effect of the Meth Project on meth use among youths. Journal of Health Economics 29(5): 732-742, 2010. (39 refs.)

Are demand-side interventions effective at curbing drug use? To the extent demand-side programs are successful, their cost effectiveness can be appealing from a policy perspective. Established in 2005, the Montana Meth Project (MMP) employs a graphic advertising campaign to deter meth use among teens. Due to the MMP's apparent success, seven other states have adopted Meth Project campaigns. Using data from the Youth Risk Behavior Surveys (YRBS), this paper investigates whether the MMP reduced methamphetamine use among Montana's youth. When accounting for a preexisting downward trend in meth use, effects on meth use are statistically indistinguishable from zero. These results are robust to using related changes of meth use among individuals without exposure to the campaign as controls in a difference-in-difference framework. A complementary analysis of treatment admissions data from the Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS) confirms the MMP has had no discernable impact on meth use.

Atkinson AM; Sumnall H; Measham F. Depictions of alcohol use in a UK Government partnered online social marketing campaign: Hollyoaks 'The Morning after the night before'. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 18(6, special issue): 454-467, 2011. (107 refs.)

Aims: This study analysed the depiction of alcohol in an online government partnered social marketing campaign: Hollyoaks 'The Morning After the Night Before'. This was a new initiative, providing Internet-delivered episodes of a popular terrestrial drama targeted at young people. Methods: All the 12 episodes were coded for visual representations of alcohol, drinking acts and alcohol effect references. The drinking setting, point in time, type of alcoholic beverage consumed, drinker's demographics, effects/consequences of drinking, and official and unofficial responses to alcohol consumption and related harms were also coded. Audience comments were then categorized according to their content in order to gain an insight into viewers' thoughts regarding the campaign. Findings: A wide variety of data is reported. Most representations of alcohol were positively framed, and were depicted without immediate consequence. No explicit sensible drinking messages were included in the episodes. Analysis of viewer feedback indicated a lack of awareness of the intentions of the campaign and little discussion of alcohol-related issues was generated. In contrast, viewers seemed to reject the depictions of alcohol portrayed, and identified with, or admired, the central characters. Further analysis indicated little coherence between alcohol framing in the online campaign and representations in the terrestrial TV series. Conclusions: This article uses the example of KYL/Hollyoaks to draw attention to the emergent use of the internet and other new media in health promotion. New media provides creative new opportunities to engage young people with health-promoting messages. However, although new ways of delivery are important they should be part of a co-ordinated and internally consistent campaign, present realistic depictions of alcohol use, and be based upon clear evidence-based principles.

Banerjee SC; Greene K; Yanovitzky I. Sensation seeking and dosage effect: An exploration of the role of surprise in anti-cocaine messages. Journal of Substance Use 16(1): 1-13, 2011. (40 refs.)

This article examines emotional and cognitive responses to graphic illustrations of the effects of cocaine among a sample of low and high sensation seekers (LSS & HSS). Two-hundred-and-five (n = 205) undergraduate students at a large northern university in the United Kingdom participated in the study and were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: low-image or high-image print adverts about the consequences of cocaine use. Results indicated that although high sensation seekers report greater cocaine use as compared with low sensation seekers, report less surprise and have less dominant cognitions than LSS, they do not differ from LSS in terms of other affective responses when exposed to anti-cocaine visual messages. However, the high-image advert was more successful than the low-image adverts in eliciting surprise, which has important theoretical and empirical implications for the design of effective messages targeting HSS.

Baum F. From Norm to Eric: Avoiding lifestyle drift in Australian health policy. (editorial). Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 35(5): 404-406, 2011. (22 refs.)

There is no doubt that the Australian Labor Party Government has made a strong commitment to preventing disease, as shown by the Council of Australian Governments' (COAG) National Partnership Agreement on Preventive Health (NPAPH), the commissioning of the National Preventative Health Taskforce (NPHT) and the Commonwealth Government's response to that Taskforce report. Each of these initiatives stresses the importance of preventing chronic disease by encouraging people to adopt appropriate lifestyles. These lifestyles involve not smoking, drinking in moderation, eating a healthy diet and taking enough exercise. Similar messages were evident in the lifestyle push of the 1980s when the 'Life be in it' campaign promoted Norm as a model of a coach potato who did not heed the lifestyle advice. The face of the lifestyle campaign this time around is Eric, an obese-looking balloon man, and his family who urge people to swap an unhealthy lifestyle habit for a more healthy one. The large lifestyle campaigns of the 1970s and 1980s have been shown to have had little, if any, impact on population health, and if anything act to increase inequities. The programs that did work were those that were implemented alongside a program of policy and structural change (such as changing the food supply), the Finnish North Karelia experiment being an example. In the past decade the power of the social determinants of health in shaping overall population health and the distribution of health within populations has received considerable attention, most prominently in the work of the Commission on the Social Determinants of Health. Why haven't we learned from this evidence? A crucial reason for the failure to learn from the evidence is that, politically, action on the social determinants of health is generally less palatable than instituting a lifestyle advice program.

Belackova V; Stastna L; Miovsky M. 'Selling by drugs': Content analysis of the coverage of illicit drugs in different news media types and formats. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 18(6, special issue): 477-489, 2011. (73 refs.)

Aims: News media coverage of drugs represents an important source for public perceptions of illicit drugs, which shape national drug policies. The aim of this article is to acknowledge differences between media types and formats, which are often neglected in the literature, so that drug field professionals can target them efficiently in order to achieve balanced media coverage of drug issues. Methods: We coded a total of 8380 Czech news media articles from 2007 related to drugs and drug use and analysed them with respect to their characteristics and drug-related coverage. With the use of multinomial logit models, two hypotheses were tested: (1) media types and formats differ with respect to their drug-related contents, and (2) media sources differ across media types and formats. Findings: Significant differences in drug-related coverage between media types and formats were found, except for public and private TV and the partisan and serious press; the media sources differed significantly across all media types and formats, public and serious media allow a broader range of sources. An exploratory analysis showed that there was a greater likelihood of TV and radio broadcasting supply reduction news, while tabloid journals, the partisan press, and local newspapers featured crime-related drug coverage. Conclusion: Drug field professionals can shape their media outputs to the needs of differing media types and formats, such as local media, which allow for direct contact with individual reporters, or audiovisual media, which require competent direct speakers.

Boyle T; Shepherd CCJ; Pearson G; Monteiro H; McAullay D; Economo K et al. Awareness and impact of the 'Bubblewrap' advertising campaign among Aboriginal smokers in Western Australia. Tobacco Control 19(1): 83-86, 2010. (17 refs.)

Background: Antismoking mass media campaigns have been shown to reduce smoking prevalence in the mainstream community, however there is little published research on their effect on Aboriginal Australian smokers. Objectives: To evaluate the awareness and impact of a mainstream mass media advertising campaign (the 'Bubblewrap' campaign) on Aboriginal smokers in the state of Western Australia. Methods: A personal intercept survey was conducted in July 2008 across three sites (the Perth metropolitan area and the non-metropolitan towns of Kalgoorlie and Broome). An opportunity or convenience sampling strategy was used to recruit Aboriginal participants, and face-to-face interviews were conducted with 198 Aboriginal smokers to ascertain awareness of the campaign advertisements, whether they were seen as believable and relevant, and the impact the advertisements had on smoking behaviour. Results: The majority of the participants interviewed had seen and/or heard the 'Bubblewrap' campaign advertisements, although there was considerably greater awareness of the television advertisement than the radio advertisements. Both forms of advertising were considered to be believable and relevant by the majority of Aboriginal smokers. Most of the smokers interviewed thought about cutting down and/or quitting after seeing or hearing the advertisements. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that mainstream antismoking mass media campaigns can positively influence the thoughts and behaviours that Aboriginal smokers have, and exhibit, towards quitting smoking. Notwithstanding this, advertisers should continue to look for better ways to incorporate Aboriginal themes in campaign messages. Future mainstream antismoking campaigns should source sufficient funds to ensure that advertising messages reach the large Aboriginal populations in regional and remote Australia.

Campo S; Askelson NM; Mastin T; Slonske M. Using evidence-based research to redirect a conversation: Newspapers' coverage of strategies to address college binge drinking. Public Relations Review 35(4): 411-418, 2009. (38 refs.)

This study examines selected newspapers' coverage of college binge drinking while also serving as an example of evidence-based practices that can be of use to public relations practitioners and health care professionals working to draw attention to important factors that are not being addressed in either public or policy conversations related to this issue. We examine newspaper coverage in 32 newspapers from 1997 to 2006 to determine which strategies to address college binge drinking are being covered and which of those are evidence-based and implemented by colleges. The mix of individual versus environmental strategies was examined based on Social Cognitive Theory. In the 255 articles analyzed, the majority of strategies covered were environmental. The most frequently covered strategy, increasing student knowledge, is individual and not evidence-based. Strategies classified as effective were not frequently covered. Media advocacy is offered as an evidence-based practice that public relations and health care professionals can use to affect change.

Chen HL. Consumer risk perception and addictive consumption behavior. Social Behavior and Personality 37(6): 767-780, 2009. (28 refs.)

The aim was to establish a causal structural model to examine consumers' addictive consumption decisions about tobacco. It was found that a consumer forms his/her risk perception based on three information sources. Moreover, a consumer's risk perception can directly influence his/her attitude toward cigarette smoking and also indirectly influence his/her intention to start smoking. From this study, managerial implications for public health professionals and for tobacco manufacturers can be drawn. For the former, it was found that: (i) antismoking advertising should intensively focus on escalating consumer risk perception and should be targeted toward males, the elderly, or persons with less education; and (ii) antismoking advertising and campaigns should be directed towards encouraging less addicted smokers to cease smoking. For the latter, tobacco manufacturers should employ social marketing techniques encouraging people not to smoke in public areas and discouraging young people from smoking.

Cotter T; Hung WT; Perez D; Dunlop S; Bishop J. Squeezing new life out of an old Sponge: how to modernise an anti-smoking media campaign to capture a new market. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 35(1): 75-80, 2011. (20 refs.)

Objectives: The iconic Sponge anti-smoking television advertisement was first made in Sydney, Australia, in 1979. In 2007, it was re-made for a new generation of smokers. This paper examines the impact of the re-made Sponge advertisement. Methods: Qualitative evaluation of the original Sponge ad by younger and older smokers (n=51) was followed by an online pre-test survey of the modernised version (n=301). A continuous tracking telephone survey of smokers and recent quitters (quit in past 12 months) over 18 years monitored performance of the modernised version while on air in late 2007 (total n=453; seen ad n=380). Results: Qualitative research found that the concept of the original Sponge ad may motivate younger smokers - who had not previously seen the ad - to quit. Online pre-testing demonstrated that the modernised version provided new information to 54% of 18-24 year olds (compared to 31% of older smokers). Tracking survey results indicated that believability of the modernised version was highest among 18-24 year olds (92%), that the ad was 'attention-grabbing' (86%), and that it was effective at influencing quitting intentions. Effects were amplified by the generation of pressure from family and friends. Implications: The re-made Sponge advertisement had a positive impact on smokers, and was particularly effective among the new market of smokers aged less than 40 years. Adapting successful mass media campaign material can be an effective and economical strategy to influence smokers.

Cotter T; Perez D; Dunlop S; Hung WT; Dessaix A; Bishop JF. The case for recycling and adapting anti-tobacco mass media campaigns. Tobacco Control 19(6): 514-517, 2010. (12 refs.)

Effective mass media campaigns are hard to come by. A delicate blend of art and science is required to ensure content is technically accurate as well as being creatively engaging for the target audience. However, the most expensive component of a media campaign is not its development but its placement at levels that allow smokers to see, engage and respond to its content. This paper uses two examples to illustrate the process of adapting existing effective material to maximise the expenditure of precious resources on the placement of material.

Davis KC; Crankshaw E; Farrelly MC; Niederdeppe J; Watson K. The impact of state tobacco control program funding cuts on teens' exposure to tobacco control interventions: Evidence from Florida. American Journal of Health Promotion 25(3): 176-185, 2011. (24 refs.)

Purpose. Explore the impact of dramatic budget cuts to the Florida Tobacco Control Program (FTCP) on Florida teens' exposure to tobacco control interventions. Design. Survey data on teens in Florida and a comparison sample of the remainder of the United States. Data were collected in six waves between 2002 and 2006, with three waves collected before and three waves collected after the PTCP midget cut in fiscal year (FY) 2004. Setting. Florida. Subjects. Twelve- to 17-year-old teem in Florida and the remainder of the United States. Between spring 2002 and summer 2006, 7841 interviews of Florida teens and 10,875 interviews of teens in the remainder of the United States were conducted. Measures. Exposure to FTCP interventions, including tobacco countermarketing, school and community organizations, and in-school tobacco prevention curricula. Analysis. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to test whether declines in Florida youth's exposure to FTCP interventions were associated with the FTCP budget cut. Results. Following the FY2004 FTCP budget cut, there were greater declines in teens' exposure to tobacco countermarketing campaigns in Florida compared with the remainder of the United States (odds ratio [OR] = .42; p < .001). The FY2004 budget cut also may have had an impact on. exposure to in-school tobacco prevention curricula and school youth organizations (OR = .67; p < .001). Conclusion. Program budget cuts in Florida resulted in significant declines in exposure to some FTCP interventions (particularly tobacco countermarketing). Research on the correlates of smoking suggests that these budget cuts could have a significant impact on tobacco-related outcomes among teens.

Delva J; Dietz NA; Perron B; Sanchez N; Woolley ME. Adult awareness of a youth-focused anti-tobacco campaign: Does having children matter? Substance Use & Misuse 44(6): 763-774, 2009

Data from a survey of tobacco use conducted in 2001 was used to examine if Florida's youth-focused anti-tobacco media campaign, which focused on cigarette smoking, reached adults. The majority of the sample was white (87%), high school or college educated (85%), and over half with children (56%). Differences in awareness and intentions to quit among adult smokers with and without children were examined. About 50% of adults were aware of the campaign and the awareness of the tobacco industry manipulation theme was associated with intentions to quit, independent of having children. These findings provide evidence that youth-targeted anti-tobacco media campaigns can reach adults; however, to change the behavior of adults who smoke, it may not be appropriate to have a one-size-fits-all program. The study's limitations are noted.

Farrelly MC; Davis KC; Nonnemaker JM; Kamyab K; Jackson C. Promoting calls to a quitline: Quantifying the influence of message theme, strong negative emotions and graphic images in television advertisements. Tobacco Control 20(4): 279-284, 2011. (28 refs.)

Objective. To understand the relative effectiveness of television advertisements that differ in their thematic focus and portrayals of negative emotions and/or graphic images in promoting calls to a smokers' quitline. Methods. Regression analysis is used to explain variation in quarterly media market-level per smoker calls to the New York State Smokers' Quitline from 2001 to 2009. The primary independent variable is quarterly market-level delivery of television advertisements measured by target audience rating points (TARPs). Advertisements were characterised by their overall objective-promoting cessation, highlighting the dangers of secondhand smoke (SHS) or other-and by their portrayals of strong negative emotions and graphic images. Results. Per smoker call volume is positively correlated with total TARPs (p<0.001), and cessation advertisements are more effective than SHS advertisements in promoting quitline call volume. Advertisements with graphic images only or neither strong negative emotions nor graphic images are associated with higher call volume with similar effect sizes. Call volume was not significantly associated with the number of TARPs for advertisements with strong negative emotions only (p=0.71) or with both graphic images and strong emotions (p=0.09). Conclusions. Exposure to television advertisements is strongly associated with quitline call volume, and both cessation and SHS advertisements can be effective. The use of strong negative emotions in advertisements may be effective in promoting smoking cessation in the population but does not appear to influence quitline call volume. Further research is needed to understand the role of negative emotions in promoting calls to quitlines and cessation more broadly among the majority of smokers who do not call quitlines.

Flynn BS; Worden JK; Bunn JY; Solomon LJ; Ashikaga T; Connolly SW et al. Mass media interventions to reduce youth smoking prevalence. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 39(1): 53-62, 2010. (33 refs.)

Background: Mass media interventions for reduction of youth cigarette smoking have been recommended based on a broad array of evidence, although few randomized community trials have been reported. Design: Four matched pairs of independent media markets were identified; one member of each pair was randomized to receive the intervention. School surveys were conducted in all markets, in 2001 before (n = 19,966) and in 2005 after (n = 23,246) the interventions were completed. Setting/participants: Grade 7-12 students from public schools in these eight medium-sized metropolitan areas participated in the summative evaluations; Grades 4-12 students were targeted to receive mass media interventions in four of these markets. Intervention: Four simultaneous campaigns consisting of specially developed messages based on behavioral theory and targeted to defined age groups of racially and ethnically diverse young people were placed in popular TV, cable, and radio programming using purchased time for 4 years. Main outcome measures: Prevalence of youth smoking and psychosocial mediators of smoking. Results: No significant impacts of these interventions on smoking behaviors or mediators were found for the overall samples. A positive effect was found for one mediator in subgroups. Among Hispanic participants a marginally favorable effect on smoking prevalence and significant effects on mediators were found. General awareness of smoking prevention TV messages was slightly higher over time in the intervention areas. Conclusions: Mass media interventions alone were unable to induce an incremental difference in youth smoking prevalence, probably because of a relatively strong tobacco control environment that included a substantial national smoking prevention media campaign.

Glantz SA. Commentary on Hanewinkel et al. (2010): Anti-smoking advertisments vaccinate movie viewers against effects of on-screen smoking. (commentary). Addiction 105(7): 1278-1279, 2010. (19 refs.)

Gosselt JF; Van Hoof JJ; Baas N; De Jong MDT. Effects of a national information campaign on compliance with age restrictions for alcohol sales. Journal of Adolescent Health 49(1): 97-98, 2011. (5 refs.)

Purpose: To investigate the effect of a national information campaign, introduced by the Dutch Food Retail Organization, named "Under 20? Show Your ID!," on compliance with age restrictions on alcohol sales. The compliance level after the campaign was compared with a baseline compliance, that we calculated based on 458 preintervention compliance measurements. Methods: Data were collected using the method of mystery shopping. Three teams, each consisting of two 15-year-old mystery shoppers, conducted 105 alcohol purchase attempts in supermarkets in three regions in the Netherlands. Results: A compliance rate of 24.8% was found, which is a significant improvement compared with Dutch basement compliance rate from the past (14.9%), but is nominally still very low. Conclusions: This mass media intervention campaign failed to increase compliance to an acceptable level. Also the specific goal of the campaign (ask everybody under <20 years old for identification [ ID]) failed because fewer than half of the 15-year-old mystery shoppers in the study were asked to show their ID when purchasing alcoholic beverages.

Hanewinkel R; Isensee B; Sargent JD; Morgenstern M. Effect of an antismoking advertisement on cinema patrons' perception of smoking and intention to smoke: A quasi-experimental study. Addiction 105(7): 1269-1277, 2010. (36 refs.)

Aims: To assess the effect of an antismoking advertisement under real-world conditions. Design: Quasi-experimental study. Setting/participants: Multiplex cinema in Kiel, Germany; 4073 patrons were surveyed after having viewed a movie. Some 4005 patrons were >= 10 years old (28.7% between 10 and 17 years). A total of 654 subjects (16.3%) were smokers. Intervention: In the intervention condition (weeks 1 and 3), a 30-second antismoking advertisement-accentuating long-term health consequences of smoking and promoting cessation-was shown prior to all movies; in the control condition (weeks 2 and 4) no such spot was shown. Main outcome measures: (i) Awareness of smoking in the movie, (ii) approval of smoking in the movie, (iii) attitude towards smoking, (iv) intention to smoke in the future and (v) desire to smoke among smokers. Findings: Patrons who were exposed to the antismoking advertisement were more likely to be female, but did not differ with respect to smoking status. After controlling for gender differences, patrons exposed to the antismoking advertisement had (i) higher awareness of smoking in the movies, (ii) lower levels of approval of smoking in the movies, and (iii) a more negative attitude towards smoking in general compared with those not exposed. Among smokers, smoking in the movies increased urge to smoke, but there was no interaction between smoking in the movies and experimental condition. Conclusions: Study results suggest that placing an antismoking advertisement before movies can affect attitudes towards smoking, bolstering evidence in support of such policies.

Harakeh Z; Engels RCME; Vohs K; van Baaren RB; Sargent J. Exposure to movie smoking, antismoking ads and smoking intensity: An experimental study with a factorial design. Tobacco Control 19(3): 185-190, 2010. (24 refs.)

Background: This study examines whether smoking portrayal in movies or antismoking advertisements affect smoking intensity among young adults. Methods: We conducted an experimental study in which 84 smokers were randomly assigned using a two (no-smoking versus smoking portrayal in the movie) by three (two prosocial ads, two antismoking ads or one of each) factorial design. Participants viewed a 60-minute movie with two commercial breaks and afterwards completed a questionnaire. Smoking during the session was allowed and observed. Results: Exposure to the movie with smoking had no effect on smoking intensity. Those who viewed two antismoking ads had significantly lower smoking intensity compared with those who viewed two prosocial ads. There was no interaction between movie smoking and antismoking ads. Baseline CO (carbon monoxide) level had the largest effect on smoking intensity. Conclusion: These findings provide further evidence to support antismoking ads placed with movies because of their possible effect on young adult smoking behaviour. However, caution is warranted, because nicotine dependence appears to be the primary predictor of smoking intensity among young adult smokers in this study.

Harrabi I; Chahed H; Maatoug J; Gaha J; Essoussi S; Ghannem H. Predictors of smoking initiation among schoolchildren in Tunisia: A 4 years cohort study. African Health Sciences 9(3): 147-152, 2009. (25 refs.)

Objective: To identify predictors of smoking initiation among non smoking Tunisian school children; and to propose efficient antismoking strategies in order to prevent smoking initiation. Methods: It was a cohort study surveying prospectively for four years pupils attending schools in Sousse city in Tunisia. 441 non smoking pupils aged 13-15 years attending secondary schools in Sousse. Data were collected by a self administered questionnaire during class session. Two ways cross tabulation, univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were the main analytical methods. Results: 57.1% of the surveyed population were girls, 42.9% were boys. 63% had at least one of their peers who smoked. Before 1999, 16.6% had already tried to smoke, 29.5% had already experienced alcohol. In 2003, smoking prevalence was 17%. 4.8% were girls; 33.3% of boys; p<0,001). 69.9% of these smokers declared that they would carry on smoking during the following five years. Predictors which were highly associated with smoking initiation were previous experimentation with alcohol and tobacco, having a smoking best friend, lack of sensitization from the part of the school, believing that smoking makes one feel cool and that tobacco shouldn't be forbidden in public places. Conclusion: Intervention programs should target young children to avoid experiencing the first cigarette. Multidisciplinary management including community and school based intervention highlighted by mass media campaigns may provide schoolchildren with skills to resist smoking peers prompts to adopt unhealthy habits such as smoking.

Heikkinen H; Patja K; Jallinoja P. Smokers' accounts on the health risks of smoking: Why is smoking not dangerous for me? Social Science & Medicine 71(5): 877-883, 2010. (57 refs.)

Drawing on qualitative interviews with forty smokers, aged 24-58 years, in Finland, this study aimed to identify key accounts that smokers used to respond to the hegemonic claim that smoking is harmful to health. While the smokers defended themselves in the face of the presumed health risk argument, they both agreed with and challenged the predominant medical and epidemiological discourses. The five most frequently observed account types that the smokers used were: health risk perspective, moderate use is not harmful, counter-evidence, compensatory behaviour, and smoking as the lesser evil. The accounts seemed to have two purposes. First, they served to protect the smokers from self-blame as well as blame from others. The smokers presented themselves as risk-aware and calculating actors, who have nevertheless made their choice to smoke. Second, the smokers tried to convince the interviewers and themselves of the harmlessness and acceptability of their own smoking. The results of the study with respect to smoking further the understanding about the way laypeople make sense of information about health risks that relates directly to their own 'unhealthy' behaviours and how they use this knowledge to justify their behaviour. Based on the findings of our study, we recommend that future anti-smoking campaigns and interventions should take into account and target lay epidemiological health accounts that are applied by smokers themselves. Rather than trying to motivate and persuade smokers to quit with information translated from epidemiological and medical research, the anti-smoking advocates and health promotion specialists should provide answers to the questions that smokers themselves are pondering and answering, too. Consequently, the results can be used in relation to other pleasurable but 'unhealthy' activities, such as unhealthy eating or drinking, by offering insights into how individuals manage to rationalise and maintain activities which the hegemonic public health perspective terms unhealthy.

Kang YH; Cappella JN; Fishbein M. The effect of marijuana scenes in anti-marijuana public service announcements on adolescents' evaluation of ad effectiveness. Health Communication 24(6): 483-493, 2009. (37 refs.)

This study explored the possible negative impact of a specific ad featureing marijuana scenes on adolescents' perceptions of ad effectiveness. A secondary data analysis was conducted on adolescents' evaluations of 60 anti-marijuana public service announcements that were a part of national and state anti-drug campaigns directed at adolescents. The major finding of the study was that marijuana scenes in anti-marijuana public service announcements negatively affected ad liking and thought valence toward the ads among adolescents who were at higher levels of risk for marijuana use. This negative impact was not reversed in the presence of strong anti-marijuana arguments. The results may be used to partially explain the lack of effectiveness of the anti-drug media campaign. It may also help researchers design more effective anti-marijuana ads by isolating adverse elements in the ads that may elicit boomerang effects in the target population.

Kupersmidt JB; Scull TM; Austin EW. Media literacy education for elementary school substance use prevention: Study of Media Detective. Pediatrics 126(3): 525-531, 2010. (32 refs.)

OBJECTIVES: Media Detective is a 10-lesson elementary school substance use prevention program developed on the basis of the message interpretation processing model designed to increase children's critical thinking skills about media messages and reduce intent to use tobacco and alcohol products. The purpose of this study was to conduct a short-term, randomized, controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of Media Detective for achieving these goals. METHODS: Elementary schools were randomly assigned to conditions to either receive the Media Detective program (n = 344) or serve in a waiting list control group (n = 335). RESULTS: Boys in the Media Detective group reported significantly less interest in alcohol-branded merchandise than boys in the control group. Also, students who were in the Media Detective group and had used alcohol or tobacco in the past reported significantly less intention to use and more self-efficacy to refuse substances than students who were in the control group and had previously used alcohol or tobacco. CONCLUSIONS: This evaluation provides evidence that Media Detective can be effective for substance use prevention in elementary school-aged children. Notably, media-related cognitions about alcohol and tobacco products are malleable and relevant to the development and maintenance of substance use behaviors during late childhood. The findings from this study suggest that media literacy-based interventions may serve as both a universal and a targeted prevention program that has potential for assisting elementary school children in making healthier, more informed decisions about use of alcohol and tobacco products.

Lee MJ. The effects of self-efficacy statements in humorous anti-alcohol abuse messages targeting college students: Who is in charge? Health Communication 25(8): 638-646, 2010. (31 refs.)

This study examined the effect of self-efficacy statements in humorous anti-alcohol abuse television advertisements on college students. A posttest only group design experiment was conducted with 124 college students. It was found that highly rebellious individuals who watched ads with a self-efficacy statement (i.e., 'You Are in Control of the Situation') indicated lower alcohol expectancies, higher risk perceptions, and higher intentions to change their drinking behaviors than those in the non-self-efficacy condition. The findings suggest that health promotional messages should be tailored to rebellious college students, particularly those who are at risk, in a manner that not only gains their attention but also minimizes possible defensive reactions to the given messages. Humorous messages with self-efficacy statements could offer ways to communicate with rebellious college students regarding their drinking problems.

Lee ST; Cheng IH. Assessing the TARES as an ethical model for antismoking ads. Journal of Health Communication 15(1): 55-75, 2010. (55 refs.)

This study examines the ethical dimensions of public health communication, with a focus on antismoking public service announcements (PSAs). The content analysis of 82 television ads from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) Media Campaign Resource Center is an empirical testing of Baker and Martinson's (2001) TARES Test that directly examines persuasive messages for truthfulness, authenticity, respect, equity, and social responsibility. In general, the antismoking ads score highly on ethicality. There are significant relationships between ethicality and message attributes (thematic frame, emotion appeal, source, and target audience). Ads that portrayed smoking as damaging to health and socially unacceptable score lower in ethicality than ads that focus on tobacco industry manipulation, addiction, dangers of secondhand smoke, and cessation. Emotion appeals of anger and sadness are associated with higher ethicality than shame and humor appeals. Ads targeting teen/youth audiences score lower on ethicality than ads targeting adult and general audiences. There are significant differences in ethicality based on sources; ads produced by the CDC rate higher in ethicality than other sources. Theoretical implications and practical recommendations are discussed.

Leshner G; Cheng IH. The effects of frame, appeal, and outcome extremity of antismoking messages on cognitive processing. Health Communication 24(3): 219-227, 2009. (40 refs.)

Research on the impact of antismoking advertisements in countermarketing cigarette advertising is equivocal. Although many studies examined how different message appeal types influence people's attitudes and behavior, there have been few studies that have explored the mechanism of how individuals attend to and remember antismoking information. This study examined how message attributes of antismoking TV ads (frame, appeal type, and outcome extremity) interacted to influence people's attention (secondary task reaction time) and memory (recognition). Antismoking public service announcements were chosen that were either loss- or gain-framed, had either a health or social appeal, or had either a more or less extreme outcome described in the message. Among the key findings were that loss-framed messages with more extreme outcomes required the most processing resources (i.e., had the slowest secondary task reaction times) and were the best remembered (i.e., were best recognized). These findings indicate ways that different message attributes affect individuals' cognitive processing, and they are discussed in light of prior framing and persuasion research.

Liu H; Tan W. The effect of anti-smoking media campaign on smoking behavior: The California experience. Annals of Economics and Finance 10(1): 29-47, 2009. (22 refs.)

This paper evaluates the effectiveness of California anti-smoking media campaign in changing smoking behavior of adults and adolescents, in the short run as well as in the long run, through individual self-reported exposure to the media message. We construct Pseudo panel data using repeated cross sections, and employ instrumental variables method to address the endogeneity problem. Overall, the results suggest that, the anti-smoking media campaign not only significantly reduces the prevalence of smoking among adults and adolescents, but also brings significant long term benefits in smoking reduction, by inducing more future attempts to quit among adult smokers and deterring more initiating intentions among adolescents.

Lowe JB; Baxter L; Hirokawa R; Pearce E; Peterson JJ. Description of a media campaign about alcohol use during pregnancy. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 71(5): 739-741, 2010. (6 refs.)

Objective: This study describes the development and testing of a multicomponent media campaign aimed at increasing discussions of alcohol use during pregnancy. Method: Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) programs in Iowa were paired and, within each pair, were randomly assigned to a usual-care group (advice not to consume alcohol while pregnant and the opportunity to watch a 30-second television commercial about the effects of drinking during pregnancy) or intervention group (usual care plus a 10-minute videotape/DVD and a printed pamphlet. Among the 700 research participants in those out-reach programs, interpersonal communication about alcohol use during pregnancy was assessed both before and after intervention, and participants were surveyed for knowledge of the effects of alcohol use during pregnancy. Results: More women in the intervention group than in the usual-care group talked to friends about alcohol use during pregnancy. Also, only women in the intervention group demonstrated an increase in relative knowledge about the effects of drinking during pregnancy. Conclusions: A multimedia campaign may be an effective way to increase interpersonal discussions and awareness of the dangers of alcohol use during pregnancy.

Nan XL; Zhao XQ. The influence of liking for antismoking PSAs on adolescents' smoking-related behavioral intentions. Health Communication 25(5): 459-469, 2010. (66 refs.)

In this research, we examine the influence of liking for antismoking public service announcements (PSAs), relative to that of PSAs' perceived argument strength, on adolescents' smoking-related behavioral intentions. Data from the first Legacy Media Tracking Survey (LMTS-I) suggest that the relative persuasive impact of PSA liking and perceived argument strength varies as a function of message recipients' smoking status. PSA liking appears to be an important predictor of smoking intentions for never smokers, whereas perceived argument strength strongly predicts quitting intentions for current smokers. For former smokers, both perceived argument strength and PSA liking have significant effects on smoking intentions, with perceived argument strength exerting a stronger impact. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. The NSDUH Report: Exposure to Substance Use Prevention Messages and Substance Use among Adolescents: 2002 to 2007. (April 2, 2009). Rockville MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, 2009. (6 refs.)

This issue examines trends in the rate of exposure of adolescents to prevention messages from 2002 to 2007. It also examines the ages of those exposed to prevention messages by key demographic characteristics and the relationship between message exposure and substance use.5 All findings presented in this report are based on trends and annual averages in the NSDUH data for 2002 through 2007. Summary: From 2002 to 2007, there were decreases in the percentages of adolescents aged 12 to 17 reporting exposure to drug or alcohol use prevention messages through media sources (from 83.2 to 77.9%) and prevention programs outside of school (from 12.7 to 11.3%), but the percentage who had talked with their parents about the dangers of alcohol, drug, or tobacco use in the past year increased (from 58.1 to 59.6%). Combined data from 2002 to 2007 indicate that talking with a parent about the dangers of substance use decreased with age (61.6 percent of those aged 12 or 13, 59.5% of those aged 14 or 15, and 57.1% of those aged 16 or 17), whereas the age receiving prevention messages through media sources increased with age (77.0, 82.7, and 84.2%, respectively). In general, adolescents who reported having been exposed to substance use prevention messages in the past year were less likely than those who were not exposed to have used cigarettes, alcohol, and illicit drugs in the past month.

Public Domain

Perkins HW; Linkenbach JW; Lewis MA; Neighbors C. Effectiveness of social norms media marketing in reducing drinking and driving: A statewide campaign. Addictive Behaviors 35(10): 866-874, 2010. (31 refs.)

This research evaluated the efficacy of a high-intensity social norms media marketing campaign aimed at correcting normative misperceptions and reducing the prevalence of drinking and driving among 2i-to-34year-olds in Montana. A quasi-experimental design was used, such that regions of Montana were assigned to one of three experimental groups: social norms media marketing campaign, buffer, and control. Four random samples of Montanans between the ages of 21 and 34 were assessed at four time points over 18 months via phone surveys. Findings suggest that the social norms media campaign was successful at exposing the targeted population to social norms messages in the counties within the intervention region. Moreover, results demonstrate the campaign reduced normative misperceptions, increased use of designated drivers, and decreased drinking and driving among those young adults in counties within the intervention region. Social norms media marketing can be effective at changing drinking-related behaviors at the population level. This research provides a model for utilizing social norms media marketing to address other behaviors related to public health.

Sanders-Jackson AN; Cappella JN; Linebarger DL; Piotrowski JT; O'Keeffe M; Strasser AA. Visual attention to antismoking PSAs: Smoking cues versus other attention-grabbing features. Human Communication Research 37(2): 275-+, 2011. (59 refs.)

This study examines how addicted smokers attend visually to smoking-related public service announcements (PSAs) in adults smokers. Smokers' onscreen visual fixation is an indicator of cognitive resources allocated to visual attention. Characteristic of individuals with addictive tendencies, smokers are expected to be appetitively activated by images of their addiction-specifically smoking cues. At the same time, these cues are embedded in messages that associate avoidance responses with these appetitive cues, potentially inducing avoidance of PSA processing. Findings suggest that segments of PSAs that contain smoking cues are processed similarly to segments that contain complex stimuli (operationalized in this case as high in information introduced) and that visual attention is aligned with smoking cues on the screen.

Sargent JD; Hanewinkel R. Evidence-based policy: An R-rating for movies with smoking. (editorial). Addiction 104(5): 825-827, 2009. (19 refs.)

Shadel WG; Fryer CS; Tharp-Taylor S. Tobacco industry manipulation messages in anti-smoking public service announcements: The effect of explicitly versus implicitly delivering messages. Addictive Behaviors 35(5): 526-529, 2010. (20 refs.)

Message content in anti-smoking public service announcements (PSAs) can be delivered explicitly (directly with concrete statements) or implicitly (indirectly via metaphor), and the method of delivery may affect the efficacy of those PSAs. The purpose of this study was to conduct an initial test of this idea using tobacco industry manipulation PSAs in adolescents. A 2 (age: 11-14 years old; 15-17 years old) x 2 (message delivery: implicit, explicit) mixed model design was used. There was a significant main effect of message delivery: Tobacco industry manipulation PSAs that delivered their messages explicitly were associated with stronger levels of smoking resistance self-efficacy compared to tobacco industry manipulation PSAs that delivered their messages implicitly. No significant main effects of age were found nor were any interactions between age and message delivery. These results suggest that message delivery factors should be taken into account when designing anti-smoking PSAs.

Smith KC; Twum D; Gielen AC. Media coverage of celebrity DUIs: Teachable moments or problematic social modeling? Alcohol and Alcoholism 44(3): 256-260, 2009. (26 refs.)

Aim: Alcohol in the media influences norms around use, particularly for young people. A recent spate of celebrity arrests for drinking and driving (DUI) has received considerable media attention. We asked whether these newsworthy events serve as teachable moments or problematic social modeling for young women. Method: Qualitative analysis of US media coverage of four female celebrities (Michelle Rodriguez, Paris Hilton, Nicole Richie and Lindsay Lohan) was conducted over the year following their DUI arrest (December 2005 through June 2008). The media sample included five television and three print sources and resulted in 150 print and 16 television stories. Results: Stories were brief, episodic and focused around glamorous celebrity images. They included routine discussion of the consequences of the DUI for the individual celebrities without much evidence of a consideration of the public health dimensions of drinking and driving or possible prevention measures. Conclusions: Our analysis found little material in the media coverage that dealt with preventing injury or promoting individual and collective responsibility for ensuring such protection. Media attention to such newsworthy events is a missed opportunity that can and should be addressed through media advocacy efforts.

Sobani Z; Nizami S; Raza E; Baloch NU; Khan JA. Graphic tobacco health warnings: Which genre to choose? International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 14(3): 356-361, 2010. (24 refs.)

BACKGROUND: Tobacco prevention studies show that graphic health warnings are more effective than text warnings, but there are no data on the effectiveness of different types of graphic health warnings in a Pakistani population. Even marginal differences in the effectiveness of genres can be of potential significance for public health. OBJECTIVE: To study the effectiveness of different types of graphic tobacco warnings In a Pakistani population. STUDY DESIGN: We presented ten anti-smoking warnings to randomly selected volunteers (n = 170) and recorded their opinion on the effectiveness of each warning. The warnings were based on a range of images aimed at the diverse population interviewed. A grading scale based on appeal, application, educational potential and motivation towards cessation was used to produce a composite grade of perceived effectiveness of the warning. RESULTS: Our results indicate that graphic warnings reach a greater proportion of the population than text warnings. Those appealing to logic, and those inculcating a sense of fear by showing a deleterious outcome of smoking, were judged likely to be most effective in motivating smokers to quit and preventing experimental smokers from forming a habit.

Vallone DM; Duke JC; Cullen J; McCausland KL; Allen JA. Evaluation of EX: A national mass media smoking cessation campaign. American Journal of Public Health 101(2): 302-309, 2011. (28 refs.)

Objectives. We used longitudinal data to examine the relationship between confirmed awareness of a national, branded, mass media smoking cessation campaign and cessation outcomes. Methods. We surveyed adult smokers (n=4067) in 8 designated market areas ("media markets") at baseline and again approximately 6 months later. We used multivariable models to examine campaign effects on cognitions about quitting, quit attempts, and 30-day abstinence. Results. Respondents who demonstrated confirmed awareness of the EX campaign were significantly more likely to increase their level of agreement. on a cessation-related cognitions index from baseline to follow-up (odds ratio [OR]=1.6; P=.046). Individuals with confirmed campaign awareness had a 24% greater chance than did those who were not aware of the campaign of making a quit attempt between baseline and follow-up (OR=1.24; P=.048). Conclusions. A national, branded, mass media smoking cessation campaign can change smokers' cognitions about quitting and increase quit attempts. We strongly recommend that federal and state governments provide funding for media campaigns to increase smoking cessation, particularly for campaigns that have been shown to impact quit attempts and abstinence.

Vallone DM; Niederdeppe J; Richardson AK; Patwardhan P; Niaura R; Cullen J. A national mass media smoking cessation campaign: Effects by race/ethnicity and education. American Journal of Health Promotion 25(5, Supplement S): S38-S50, 2011. (44 refs.)

Purpose. To assess the effectiveness of a large-scale, national smoking cessation media campaign., the EX campaign, across racial/ethnic and educational subgroups. Design. A longitudinal random-digit-dial panel study conducted prior to and 6 months following the national launch of the campaign. Setting. The sample was drawn from eight designated media markets in the United States. Subjects. The baseline survey was conducted on 5616 current smokers, aged 18 to 49 years, and 4067 (73% follow-up response rate) were resurveyed at the 6-month follow-up. Measures. The primary independent variable is confirmed awareness of the campaign advertising, and the outcome variables are follow-up cessation-related cognitions index score and quit attempts. Analysis. Multivariable logistic and linear regression analyses were conducted within racial/ethnic and educational strata to assess the strength of association between confirmed awareness of campaign advertising and cessation-related outcomes. Results. Confirmed awareness of campaign advertising increased favorable cessation-related cognitions among Hispanics and quit attempts among non-Hispanic blacks, and increased favorable cessation-related cognitions and quit attempts among smokers with less than a high school education. Conclusions. These results suggest that the EX campaign may be effective in promoting cessation-related cognitions and behaviors among minority and disadvantaged smokers who experience a disproportionate burden of tobacco-related illness and mortality.

van Gemert C; Dietze P; Gold J; Sacks-Davis R; Stoove M; Vally H et al. The Australian national binge drinking campaign: Campaign recognition among young people at a music festival who report risky drinking. BMC Public Health 11: e-article 482, 2011. (31 refs.)

Background: The Australian Government launched a mass media campaign in 2009 to raise awareness of the harms and costs associated risky drinking among young Australians. The aim of this study was to assess if young people attending a music festival who report frequent risky single occasions of drinking (RSOD) recognise the key message of the campaign, "Binge drinking can lead to injuries and regrets", compared to young people who report less frequent RSOD. Methods: A cross-sectional behavioural survey of young people (aged 16-29 years) attending a music festival in Melbourne, Australia, was conducted in January 2009. We collected basic demographics, information on alcohol and other drug use and sexual health and behaviour during the previous 12 months, and measured recognition of the Australian National Binge Drinking Campaign key message. We calculated the odds of recognition of the key slogan of the Australian National Binge Drinking Campaign among participants who reported frequent RSOD (defined as reported weekly or more frequent RSOD during the previous 12 months) compared to participants who reported less frequent RSOD. Results: Overall, three-quarters (74.7%) of 1072 participants included in this analysis recognised the campaign message. In the adjusted analysis, those reporting frequent RSOD had significantly lower odds of recognising the campaign message compared to those not reporting frequent RSOD (OR 0.7, 95% CI 0.5-0.9), whilst females had significantly greater odds of recognising the campaign message compared to males (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.4-2.1). Conclusions: Whilst a high proportion of the target group recognised the campaign, our analysis suggests that participants that reported frequent RSOD - and thus the most important group to target - had statistically significantly lower odds of recognising the campaign message.

Wade B; Merrill RM; Lindsay GB. Cigarette pack warning labels in Russia: How graphic should they be? European Journal of Public Health 21(3): 366-372, 2011. (37 refs.)

Methods: Nationally representative data were collected from 1778 participants in the Russian Federation in October 2009. A cross-sectional survey was conducted through person-to-person household interviews with respondents aged epsilon 14 years. Survey questions included standard demographic queries and three study-specific questions. Participants rated the strength of 13 cigarette warning labels according to their effectiveness to deter from smoking. Smoking status and the population's acceptance of similar warning labels was also measured. Results: A dose-response pattern is apparent between the degree of graphic content of cigarette warning labels and the public's perception regarding the warning label's ability to discourage smoking. Approximately 87% of all respondents thought Russian authorities should require tobacco manufacturers to place graphic warning labels on cigarette packs, while 80% of current smokers wanted their government to enact such enforcement. Conclusion: The Russian population would strongly support government policy that would require graphic warning labels to be placed on cigarette packs in their country. In order to best deter from smoking, future cigarette warning labels in Russia should be as graphic as possible.

Wakefield MA; Loken B; Hornik RC. Use of mass media campaigns to change health behaviour. (review). Lancet 376(9748): 1261-1271, 2010. (104 refs.)

Mass media campaigns are widely used to expose high proportions of large populations to messages through routine uses of existing media, such as television, radio, and newspapers. Exposure to such messages is, therefore, generally passive. Such campaigns are frequently competing with factors, such as pervasive product marketing, powerful social norms, and behaviours driven by addiction or habit. In this Review we discuss the outcomes of mass media campaigns in the context of various health-risk behaviours (eg, use of tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs, heart disease risk factors, sex-related behaviours, road safety, cancer screening and prevention, child survival, and organ or blood donation). We conclude that mass media campaigns can produce positive changes or prevent negative changes in health-related behaviours across large populations. We assess what contributes to these outcomes, such as concurrent availability of required services and products, availability of community-based programmes, and policies that support behaviour change. Finally, we propose areas for improvement, such as investment in longer better-funded campaigns to achieve adequate population exposure to media messages.

Walsh G; Hassan LM; Shiu E; Andrews JC; Hastings G. Segmentation in social marketing: Insights from the European Union's multi-country, antismoking campaign. European Journal of Marketing 44(7-8): 1140-1164, 2010. (73 refs.)

Purpose - In 2005, the European Union launched a four-year antismoking television advertising campaign across its 25 Member States. This study aims to evaluate the second and third years (2006 and 2007) of the campaign based on telephone interviews with over 24,000 consumers (smokers, non-smokers, and ex-smokers). Design/methodology/approach - The study focuses on smokers and examines the potential for using segmentation and targeting in informing the campaign. Three important factors are used to identify clusters: attitude toward the campaign; comprehension of the campaign; and inclination to think responsibly about their smoking behaviour. Findings - Cluster analyses identify three distinct and significant target groups (message-involved, message-indifferent, and message-distanced) who respond differentially to the advertising. Furthermore, the percentage of respondents within each cluster varies across the EU Member States. Using Schwartz's cultural framework, the cultural dimension of "openness to change versus conservatism" is found to explain substantial cross-national variation in message-involved and messaged-distanced respondents. Research limitations/implications - Cluster solutions are shown to be stable across the two data waves. Implications of these results are discussed. Originality/value - This is the first study that seeks to better understand consumer reactions to social-marketing advertising across different segments of the overall target group.

Wills TA; Gibbons FX; Sargent JD; Gerrard M; Lee HR; Dal Cin S. Good self-control moderates the effect of mass media on adolescent tobacco and alcohol use: Tests with studies of children and adolescents. Health Psychology 29(5): 539-549, 2010. (72 refs.)

Objective: To investigate whether self-control moderates the effect of media influences on tobacco and alcohol use among youth and if so how this effect occurs. Design: In Study 1, a regional sample of 10-year olds (N = 290) was interviewed in households; attention to tobacco/alcohol advertising was assessed. In Study 2, a national sample of youth ages 10-14 years (N = 6,522) was surveyed by telephone; exposure to tobacco/alcohol use in movies was assessed. Good self-control was measured in both studies. Main Outcome Measures: Willingness to use substances and affiliation with peer substance users (Study 1); involvement in smoking or drinking (Study 2). Results: In Study 1, the effect of tobacco/alcohol advertising on predisposition for substance use was lower among persons scoring higher on good self-control. In Study 2, the effect of movie smoking/alcohol exposure on adolescent tobacco/alcohol use was lower, concurrently and prospectively, among persons scoring higher on good self-control. Moderation occurred primarily through reducing the effect of movie exposure on positive smoking/alcohol expectancies and the effect of expectancies on adolescent use; some evidence for moderation of social processes was also noted. Covariates in the analyses included demographics, sensation seeking, and IQ. Conclusion: Good self-control reduces the effect of adverse media influences on adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. Findings on the processes underlying this effect may be useful for media literacy and primary prevention programs.

Wood MD; DeJong W; Fairlie AM; Lawson D; Lavigne AM; Cohen F et al. Common ground: An investigation of environmental management alcohol prevention initiatives in a college community. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs Supplement 16: 96-105, 2009. (32 refs.)

Objective: This article presents an evaluation of Common Ground, a media campaign-supported prevention program featuring increased enforcement, decreased alcohol access, and other environmental management initiatives targeting college student drinking. Method: Phase I of the media campaign addressed student resistance to environmentally focused prevention by reporting majority student support for alcohol policy and enforcement initiatives, Phase 2 informed students about state laws, university policies, and environmental initiatives. We conducted student telephone surveys, with samples stratified by gender and year in school, for 4 consecutive years at the intervention campus and 3 years at a comparison campus. We did a series of one-way between-subjects analyses of variance and analyses of covariance, followed by tests of linear trend and planned comparisons. Targeted outcomes included perceptions of enforcement and alcohol availability, alcohol use, and alcohol-impaired driving. We examined archived police reports for student incidents, primarily those resulting from loud parties. Results: There were increases at the intervention campus in students' awareness of formal alcohol-control efforts and perceptions of the alcohol environment, likelihood of apprehension for underage drinking, consequences for alcohol-impaired driving, and responsible alcohol service practices. There were decreases in the perceived likelihood of other students' negative behavior at off-campus parties. Police-reported incidents decreased over time; however, perceived consequences for off-campus parties decreased. No changes were observed for difficulty finding an off-campus party, self-reported alcohol use, or alcohol-impaired driving. Conclusions: The intervention successfully altered perceptions of alcohol enforcement, alcohol access, and the local alcohol environment. This stud), provides important preliminary information to researchers and practitioners engaged in collaborative prevention efforts in campus communities.