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CORK Bibliography: Parenting

42 citations. October 2006 to present

Prepared: September 2007

Banwell C; Bammer G. Maternal habits: Narratives of mothering, social position and drug use. International Journal of Drug Policy 17(6): 504-513, 2006. (62 refs.)

Concerns are frequently voiced about harms to children of mothers who use drugs. We explored the subjective socio-cultural experiences of childrearing by women using illicit drugs (heroin mainly and amphetamines) and compared them to those of three other groups of women. Two comparison groups mirrored correlates of illicit drug use, namely: women on low incomes (who did not use these drugs) and women who are mobile, and therefore likely to be socially isolated (these had partners employed in the Australian Defence Forces). The third group reflected the desired social norm, i.e. women with medium and higher incomes who did not use illicit drugs. In-depth interviews were conducted with purposive samples, totaling 70 women with children aged five and below residing in Canberra, Australia. All women, irrespective of their drug use, found living on a low income, social isolation or being at home with young children difficult, at least sometimes. However, women who use illicit drugs are often blamed for these difficulties in ways that other groups of women are not. They also do not receive the same levels of social support that other women enjoy.

Barnes GM; Hoffman JH; Welte JW; Farrell MP; Dintcheff BA. Effects of parental monitoring and peer deviance on substance use and delinquency. Journal of Marriage and the Family 68(4): 1084-1104, 2006. (48 refs.)

From socialization theory, it was hypothesized that parental support and monitoring as well as peer deviance would influence individual trajectories of alcohol misuse, other substance use, and delinquency. Six waves of data were analyzed using interviews with 506 adolescents in a general population sample. Results from multilevel modeling showed that monitoring significantly predicted adolescents' initial levels (intercepts) of alcohol misuse and delinquency. Parental monitoring strongly predicted the rates of increase (slope) in all 3 problem behaviors. Peer deviance significantly predicted initial levels of all problem behaviors and the rates of increase in them. This study provides evidence that both effective parenting and avoidance of associations with delinquent peers are important factors in preventing adolescent problem behaviors.

Bono KE; Sheinberg N; Scott KG; Claussen AH. Early intervention for children prenatally exposed to cocaine. Infants and Young Children 20(1): 26-37, 2007. (59 refs.)

This article brings together information from our experience of providing research-based intervention to more than 600 children who were prenatally exposed to cocaine and from the research literature on the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure. Based on our experience and this literature, it is now clear that there are no large negative independent effects of cocaine exposure and that there is no "crack baby" syndrome. However, many of these children who have been exposed to cocaine are at risk for poor developmental outcomes, particularly in the area of language development, primarily because of the environmental factors that are associated with parental substance abuse. As our intervention research shows, early intervention can be effective in ameliorating some of this risk. Suggestions are made regarding programmatic steps that should be taken next to further improve program effectiveness and enhance the knowledge base.

Brook DW; Brook JS; Rubenstone E; Zhang CS. Aggressive behaviors in the adolescent children of HIV-positive and HIV-negative drug-abusing fathers. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 32(3): 399-413, 2006. (47 refs.)

This study examined aggressive behaviors in the adolescent children of HIV-positive and HIV-negative drug-abusing fathers. Data were collected via individual structured interviews of low-income, predominantly African American and Hispanic, father-child dyads (N = 415). Structural Equation Modeling was used to assess the interrelationship of several latent constructs with respect to adolescent aggression. Results showed a mediational model linking paternal attributes (including HIV status) and ecological factors with the father-child relationship, which impacted peer influences and the adolescent's vulnerable personality, which was the most proximal construct to aggressive behaviors. Ecological factors were also mediated by peer influences and directly linked with adolescent aggression.

Brook JS; Brook DW; Ning YM; Whiteman M; Finch SJ. The relationship of personality and behavioral development from adolescence to young adulthood and subsequent parenting behavior. Psychological Reports 99(1): 3-19, 2006. (36 refs.)

The purpose of the study was to examine the association of parental personality, behavior, and substance use during adolescence and adulthood as related to the later parent-offspring relationship. The sample consisted of 297 parents (M age 32 yr.), who were first interviewed at earlier points in their lives in childhood and early adolescence at six points in time, extending from 1983 to 2002. Multiple regression models showed that parents with certain earlier personality and behavioral attributes, e.g., more rebelliousness and more frequent tobacco use, had a more difficult relationship with their children. Findings indicated an association between the cumulative number of psychosocial risk factors in the parents and difficulties in the parent-child relationship. The findings suggested that interventions designed to decrease youths' substance abuse may increase the likelihood that later when they are parents they will form nurturing relationships with their children.

Carlson BE; Matto H; Smith CA; Eversman M. A pilot study of reunification following drug abuse treatment: Recovering the mother role. Journal of Drug Issues 36(4): 877-902, 2006. (49 refs.)

This qualitative study explored the experiences of women in recovery from drug abuse who had resumed parenting their children after child placement. Six mothers and I I service providers from substance abuse treatment and child welfare agencies were interviewed about their perceptions of the experience of being reunified with one's children following substance abuse treatment. Findings revealed that mothers have intense emotional reactions to having children placed, which can motivate recovery but also be a source of stress. A variety of supports were identified as necessary to prepare mothers for resuming care of children beyond substance abuse treatment including counseling, child care, financial support, and parenting education. Reunification, however desirable, was described as overwhelming and fraught with parenting challenges, such as effective limit setting with children. Numerous challenges and barriers to successful reunification were identified, such as stigmatization in the child welfare system. Implications for service delivery and research are discussed.

Castro FG; Brook JS; Brook DW; Rubenstone E. Paternal, perceived maternal, and youth risk factors as predictors of youth stage of substance use: A longitudinal study. Journal of Addictive Diseases 25(2): 65-75, 2006. (46 refs.)

This longitudinal study examined paternal, perceived maternal, and youth risk factors at Time I (T1) (e.g., substance use, violent victimization, parental rules) as predictors of the stage of substance use in the adolescent child at Time 2 (T2). Participants (N = 296) consisted of drug-abusing fathers and one of their adolescent children, aged 12 to 20 years. Fathers and youths were each administered structured interviews separately and in private. Adolescents were re-interviewed approximately one year later. Pearson correlation analyses showed that the paternal, perceived maternal, and youth risk factors were significantly related to adolescent stage of substance use at T2. With an increase in risk factors, there was an increase in T2 stage of substance use in the child. Findings imply that father-oriented treatment programs should focus on how paternal behaviors, such as illegal drug use, inadequate parenting skills, and a poor father-child relationship, contribute to youth problem behaviors, including alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use.

Choi S; Ryan JP. Completing substance abuse treatment in child welfare: The role of co-occurring problems and primary drug of choice. Child Maltreatment 11(4): 313-325, 2006. (62 refs.)

A significant number of substance-abusing parents in the child welfare system do not complete substance abuse treatments. Consequently, their children experience longer stays in substitute care settings, and the risk of the termination of parental rights is increased. This study identifies and determines the specific factors that explain the completion of substance abuse treatment for substance-abusing caregivers in child welfare. The sample includes 871 caregivers enrolled in the Illinois Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse waiver demonstration. Approximately 22 % of these caregivers successfully completed all required levels of substance abuse treatment. The multivariate models indicate that age, employment status, and legal involvement were significantly associated with the likelihood of completing substance abuse treatment. Heroin users were significantly less likely to complete treatment as compared with alcohol, cocaine, and marijuana users. The findings are discussed in terms of policy and practice implications for public child welfare systems.

Cousins JC; Bootzin RR; Stevens SJ; Ruiz BS; Haynes PL. Parental involvement, psychological distress, and sleep: A preliminary examination in sleep-disturbed adolescents with a history of substance abuse. Journal of Family Psychology 21(1): 104-113, 2007. (37 refs.)

The relationships between family environment and psychological distress and between psychological distress and sleep disturbance in adolescents are well established. However, less is known about the influence of family environment on sleep disturbance. The authors' goal is to examine the effects of parental involvement on psychological distress and sleep disturbance in 34 adolescents with a history of substance abuse. Linear regression techniques and confidence intervals were used to test the significance of mediation analyses. Lower levels of parental involvement were associated with higher levels of psychological distress, and higher levels of psychological distress were associated with lower sleep efficiency and more time spent in bed. Follow-up analyses found that higher levels of parental involvement were associated with earlier morning arising times, when controlling for psychological distress. These data indicate that psychological distress is important to consider when examining the relationship between parental involvement and sleep in adolescents.

Dalton MA; Adachi-Mejia AM; Longacre MR; Titus-Ernstoff LT; Gibson JJ; Martin SK et al. Parental rules and monitoring of children's movie viewing associated with children's risk for smoking and drinking. Pediatrics 118(5): 1932-1942, 2006. (74 refs.)

OBJECTIVES. Evidence suggests that media portrayals of tobacco and alcohol use are important predictors of adolescent smoking and drinking. We examined the role of parents in monitoring and limiting children's movie exposure and whether or not this was associated with a lower risk of adolescent smoking and drinking. DESIGN. We surveyed 2606 child-parent dyads between 2002 and 2003. We asked children (9-12 years of age) how often their parents engaged in specific behaviors to monitor their movie viewing and if their parents allowed them to watch R-rated movies. We also surveyed children about parental monitoring of nonmedia-related behaviors. The primary outcomes were risk of smoking and drinking alcohol, defined by attitudinal susceptibility or early experimentation with either substance. RESULTS. Less than half (45.0%) the children were prohibited from watching R-rated movies. Of those who were allowed to watch R-rated movies, one third (34.7%) always viewed them with a parent and two thirds (65.3%) sometimes watched them without a parent. Less than 10% of the children reported that their parents consistently engaged in all 4 movie-monitoring behaviors. Even after controlling for parental monitoring of nonmedia-related behaviors and other covariates, children were at lower risk of smoking and drinking if their parents prohibited them from watching R-rated movies. Parental coviewing of R-rated movies was associated with a lower risk of child smoking but not drinking if parents consistently monitored what their children watched. CONCLUSIONS. Parental rules and monitoring of children's movie viewing may have a protective influence on children's risk for smoking and drinking, over and above parental monitoring of nonmedia related behaviors. This highlights a potential role for parents in preventing early initiation of tobacco and alcohol use among adolescents.

DeKlyen M; Brooks-Gunn J; McLanahan S; Knab J. The mental health of married, cohabiting, and non-coresident parents with infants. American Journal of Public Health 96(10): 1836-1841, 2006. (28 refs.)

Objectives. We compared recent parents (married, cohabiting, not cohabiting but romantically involved, and not romantically involved) to examine the association between mental health problems and relationship status. Methods. We analyzed data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study that followed a cohort of approximately 4900 births in large US cities. Our study included a large oversample of nonmarital births (n = 3700) and interviews with both mothers and fathers. We used the Composite International Diagnostic Interview Short Form to assess depression and generalized anxiety 1 year after the birth. Self reports were used to measure heavy drinking, illicit drug use, incarceration, and partner violence. Results. Unmarried parents reported more mental health and behavioral problems than did married parents, and unmarried parents whose relationships ended before the birth reported more impairment compared with other groups of unmarried parents. Conclusions. A substantial number of children are born to unmarried parents and are at risk for poor parenting and poor developmental outcomes. Government initiatives aimed at increasing marriage rates among low-income couples need to consider the mental health status of unmarried parents.

Diaz SA; Secades-Villa R; Perez JME; Fernandez-Hermida JR; Garcia-Rodriguez O; Crespo JLC. Family predictors of parent participation in an adolescent drug abuse prevention program. Drug and Alcohol Review 25(4): 327-331, 2006. (22 refs.)

Low participation rates constitute a serious problem faced by family drug abuse prevention programs. In this study we analyse the factors related to participation in a Life Skills Training program implemented in three schools in Spain. Participants in the study were 485 pupils aged 12 - 14 years and their respective parents. The variables that predicted participation in the program were: number of children and educational level of parents, children's drug use, family conflict, parental rearing style, relationships between parents and children and family communication. The results from Spain are similar to those found in international studies, and indicate that the families most at risk of drug use are those least likely to participate in prevention programs. There is a need for strategies to increase participation in prevention programs of the families most at risk.

Doggett C; Burrett S; Osborn DA. Home visits during pregnancy and after birth for women with an alcohol or drug problem. (review). Cochrane Database of Systemic Reviews 4(article no. CD004456), 2005. (111 refs.)

Background: One potential method of improving outcome for pregnant or postpartum women with a drug or alcohol problem is with home visits. Objectives: To determine the effects of home visits during pregnancy and/or after birth for pregnant women with a drug or alcohol problem. Search strategy We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Trials Register (30 April 2004), CENTRAL (The Cochrane Library, Issue 2, 2004), MEDLINE (1966 to April 2004), EMBASE (1980 to week 16, 2004), CINAHL (1982 to April 2004), PsycINFO (1974 to April 2004), citations from previous reviews and trials, and contacted expert informants. Selection criteria Studies using random or quasi-random allocation of pregnant or postpartum women with a drug or alcohol problem to home visits. Trials enrolling high-risk women of whom more than 50% were reported to use drugs or alcohol were also eligible. Data collection and analysis assessments of trials were performed independently by all review authors. Statistical analyses were performed using fixed and random effects models where appropriate. Main results: Six studies (709 women) compared home visits after birth with no home visits. None provided a significant antenatal component of home visits. The visitors included community health nurses, pediatric nurses, trained counsellors, paraprofessional advocates, midwives and lay African-American women. Most studies had methodological limitations, particularly large losses to follow up. There were no significant differences in continued illicit drug use (2 studies, 248 women; relative risk (RR) 0.95, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.75 to 1.20), continued alcohol use (RR 1.08, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.41) failure to enrol in a drug treatment program (2 studies, 211 women; RR 0.45 95% CI 0.10 to 1.94). There was no significant difference in the Bayley MDI (3 studies, 199 infants; weighted mean difference 2.89, 95% CI -1.17 to 6.95) or Psychomotor Index (WMD 3.14, 95% CI -0.03 to 6.32). Other outcomes reported by one study only included breastfeeding at six months (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.81 to 1.23), incomplete six-month infant vaccination schedule (RR 1.07, 95% CI 0.58 to 1.96), non-accidental injury and non-voluntary foster care (RR 0.16, 95% CI 0.02 to 1.23), failure to use postpartum contraception (RR 0.41, 95% CI 0.20 to 0.82), child behavioural problems (RR 0.46, 95% CI 0.21 to 1.01), and involvement with child protective services (RR 0.38, 95% CI 0.20 to 0.74). Authors' conclusions: There is insufficient evidence to recommend the routine use of home visits for women with a drug or alcohol problem. Further large, high-quality trials are needed, and women's views on home visiting need to be assessed. Not enough information on home visiting in pregnancy and after the birth for women with an alcohol or drug problem. Women with an alcohol or drug problem in pregnancy are at increased risk of miscarriage, low birthweight babies, infections and postnatal depression, and the babies of withdrawal symptoms or impaired development. Home visits by individuals or teams of health professionals or trained lay people are aimed at improving health and social outcomes for mothers and babies. A review of trials found evidence that home visits after the birth increased the engagement of these women in drug treatment services but there were insufficient data to say if this improved the health of the baby or mother. Further research is needed, with visits starting during pregnancy.

Doris JL; Meguid V; Thomas M; Blatt S; Eckenrode J. Prenatal cocaine exposure and child welfare outcomes. Child Maltreatment 11(4): 326-337, 2006. (41 refs.)

This study examines the relationship between prenatal cocaine exposure and child welfare outcomes. Seventy-six infants positive for cocaine at birth were matched to 76 negative infants. With prenatal care and maternal use of alcohol and tobacco controlled, cocaine-exposed infants had significant decrements in birth weight, length, head circumference, and depressed 5-min Apgar scores. This confirmed the health risk of prenatal cocaine exposure for the sample. Three-year follow-up data were obtained from the State Central Register and foster care records. Adjusting for prior maternal involvement with child welfare services the study groups did not differ in incidents of child maltreatment or foster care placement. These findings suggest that prenatal cocaine exposure is not a marker for abusive parenting. However, from the perspective of a cumulative risk model, the identification of cocaine-exposed infants at birth can form the starting point for the development of appropriate diagnostic and follow-up services for mother and child.

Eiden RD; Edwards EP; Leonard KE. Children's internalization of rules of conduct: Role of parenting in alcoholic families. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 20(3): 305-315, 2006. (84 refs.)

This study examined the association between fathers' alcoholism and children's internalization of rules of conduct at 2 to 3 years of age. The sample consisted of 220 families (102 without alcoholism, 118 with alcoholism). Results indicated that there was no direct association between fathers' alcoholism and children's internalization measured with a behavioral paradigm at age 3 years. However, the indirect association between fathers' alcoholism and children's behavioral internalization was significant through fathers' sensitivity during play interactions at age 2 years. Children of fathers with alcoholism were rated by their mothers as having lower internalized conduct over the 2- to 3-year period. This direct association was not mediated by parental sensitivity.

Eitle D. Parental gender, single-parent families, and delinquency: Exploring the moderating influence of race/ethnicity. Social Science Research 35(3): 727-748, 2006. (64 refs.)

Despite the great interest in the relationship between family structure and delinquent behavior generally, very little research has explored variation within the family form of single parenting and its implications. The present study examines whether parental gender is associated with delinquent behavior and marijuana, alcohol, and other illicit drug use, and whether the magnitude of an association between parental gender and delinquency is moderated by race/ethnicity. The analyses can be interpreted as supporting either the structural or maternal hypotheses, with parental gender (namely living with a father) being found to increase the risk of alcohol use generally, while females living with their fathers are at an increased risk of being involved in delinquent behavior. The only evidence of race/ethnicity conditioning the relationship between parental gender and deviant behavior was for marijuana use; living with one's father increases the risk of Hispanic/Latino adolescents engaging in marijuana use. While these finding provide further evidence that children living with single fathers may be at an increased risk of being involved in delinquent behavior (under certain conditions), additional research is needed to further evaluate the conditional nature of the single-father-delinquency association.

Foster SE; Jones DJ; Olson AL; Forehand R; Gaffney CA; Zens MS et al. Family socialization of adolescent's self-reported cigarette use: The role of parents' history of regular smoking and parenting style. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 32(4): 481-493, 2007. (48 refs.)

Objective: To examine the main and interactive effects of parental history of regular cigarette smoking and parenting style on adolescent self-reported cigarette use. Methods Predictors of adolescent self-reported cigarette use, including parents' history of regular cigarette smoking and two dimensions of parenting behavior, were analyzed in a sample of 934 predominately Caucasian (96.3%) parent-adolescent dyads. Families were drawn from the control group of a randomized control trial aimed at preventing adolescent substance use. Results In addition to the main effects of parents' history of regular smoking and parental warmth, logistic regression analysis revealed that the interaction of these two variables was associated with adolescent self-reported cigarette use. Parental warmth was associated with a decreased likelihood of the adolescent ever having smoked a cigarette; however, this was true only if neither parent had a history of regular cigarette smoking. Conclusions: Findings suggest that adolescent smoking prevention programs may be more efficacious if they address both parental history of regular smoking and parenting behavior.

Garmiene A; Zemaitiene N; Zaborskis A. Family time, parental behaviour model and the initiation of smoking and alcohol use by ten-year-old children: An epidemiological study in Kaunas, Lithuania. BMC Public Health 6(article 287), 2006. (37 refs.)

Background: Family is considered to be the first and the most important child development and socialization bond. Nevertheless, parental behaviour model importance for the children, as well as family time for shared activity amount influence upon the child's health-related behaviour habit development has not been yet thoroughly examined. The aim of this paper is to indicate the advanced health-hazardous behaviour modelling possibilities in the families, as well as time spent for joint family activities, and to examine the importance of time spent for joint family activities for the smoking and alcohol use habit initiation among children. Methods: This research was carried out in Kaunas, Lithuania, during the school year 2004 - 2005. The research population consisted of 369 fifth-grade schoolchildren ( 211 ( 57.2%) boys and 158 (42.8%) girls) and 565 parents: 323 ( 57.2%) mothers and 242 (48.2%) fathers. The response rate was 80.7% for children; 96.1% and 90.6% for mothers and fathers correspondingly. Results: Eating a meal together was the most frequent joint family activity, whereas visiting friends or relatives together, going for a walk, or playing sports were the most infrequent joint family activities. More than two thirds (81.5%) of parents ( 248 (77.0%) mothers and 207 (85.9%) fathers ( p < 0.05)) reported frequenting alcohol furnished parties at least once a month. About half of the surveyed fathers (50.6%) together with one fifth of the mothers (19.9%) ( p < 0.001) were smokers. More frequently than girls, boys reported having tried smoking (6.6% and 23.0% respectively; p < 0.001) as well as alcohol ( 31.16% and 40.1% respectively; p < 0.05). Child alcohol use was associated both with paternal alcohol use, and with the time, spent in joint family activities. For instance, boys were more prone to try alcohol, if their fathers frequented alcohol furnished parties, whereas girls were more prone to try alcohol, if family members spent less time together. Conclusion: Joint family activity time deficit together with frequent parental examples of smoking and alcohol use underlie the development of alcohol and smoking addictions in children to some extent. The above-mentioned issues are suggested to be widely addressed in the comprehensive family health education programs.

Grella CE; Greenwell L. Correlates of parental status and attitudes toward parenting among substance-abusing women offenders. Prison Journal 86(1): 89-113, 2006. (73 refs.)

This study examined the correlates of loss of parental rights and attitudes toward parenting among a sample of substance-abusing women offenders (N=483). One third of the sample had lost parental rights to a child; these mothers were younger, but had more children, were less likely to have ever worked or been married, initiated regular drug use at a younger age, and were more likely to have been in foster care or adopted themselves and to have engaged in sex work. Higher self-efficacy, decision making ability, social conformity, and childhood problems were associated with less risky parental attitudes, whereas depression, lower education, and non-White ethnicity were associated with greater risk. Services that address the psychosocial needs of women offenders may increase the likelihood of successful family reunification following incarceration.

Guilamo-Ramos V; Jaccard J; Dittus P; Bouris AM. Parental expertise, trustworthiness, and accessibility: Parent-adolescent communication and adolescent risk behavior. Journal of Marriage and the Family 68(5): 1229-1246, 2006. (39 refs.)

A communication framework of persuasion and attitude change was utilized to analyze parent-adolescent communication about adolescent risk behavior. Three parent dimensions were deemed important: (a) perceived expertise, (b) perceived trustworthiness, and (c) perceived accessibility. Data were collected in surveys from 668 mother-adolescent dyads in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods in New York City (N = 668). Results showed weak correspondence between how expert, trustworthy, and accessible mothers thought they were on the one hand and how their sons and daughters characterized them on the other. All dimensions were related to how often adolescents said they talked with their mothers about a risk behavior, which, in turn, was predictive of lower levels of adolescent risk behavior. Implications for future research are discussed.

Hayatbakhsh MR; Najman JM; Jamrozik K; Mamun AA; Alati R. Do parents' marital circumstances predict young adults' DSM-IV cannabis use disorders? A prospective study. Addiction 101(12): 1778-1786, 2006. (46 refs.)

Aims To determine whether parental marital status and marital quality in adolescence are associated with cannabis use disorders in young adults. Design Prospective birth cohort study. Setting A 21-year follow-up of 4815 mothers and their children who participated at 14 years after the child's birth in Queensland, Australia. Participants Cohort of 2303 young adults who completed the life-time version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview-computerized version (CIDI-Auto) at the 21-year follow-up. Measurements Young adults' cannabis use disorders were assessed using the CIDI-Auto. Marital status and quality (marital circumstances) and potential confounding factors such as socio-economic status (SES), maternal mental health and maternal substance use were measured when the child was 14 years of age. Findings: Marital circumstances of the mother when child was aged 14 years predicted risk of cannabis use disorders in their offspring. After adjustment for potential confounding factors, adolescents who grew up in step-father families were more likely to have cannabis use disorders in early adulthood and a moderate association was found for those children who experienced maternal marital disagreement [odds ratio (OR) = 1.7; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.0, 2.9]. There was no significant increase in subsequent risk of cannabis use disorders for children whose mothers were unpartnered at 14 years. Conclusions: Maternal marital status and marital quality are associated with young adults' subsequent cannabis use disorders. This association is independent of suspected confounding factors measured at 14 years. However, at least part of the association is explained by changes in marital status before 14 years.

Hersh MA; Hussong AM. High school drinker typologies predict alcohol involvement and psychosocial adjustment during acclimation to college. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 35(5): 741-754, 2006. (62 refs.)

This study examined differences among distinct types of high school drinkers on their alcohol involvement and psychosocial adjustment during the first semester of college. Participants were 147 college freshmen (66% female; 86% Caucasian) from a large Southeastern public university who reported on high school drinking and college stress, affect, drinking, and parenting. We used person-centered analyses to reveal relative stability in drinker typologies over the college transition and found some support for the lay-theory that restrictive parenting moderates this stability, with abstainers reacting against restrictive parenting in college through alcohol use. Finally, findings supported Block and Block's (1980) theory of ego-control and resilience such that high school experimenters showed better adaptation than abstainers and heavier users on indices of negative and positive affect. We discuss implications for a person-centered approach to the study of alcohol involvement during the college transition and the need to incorporate parenting constructs in college alcohol use research.

Hiersteiner C. Narratives of low-income mothers in addiction recovery centers: Motherhood and the treatment experience. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions 4(2): 51-64, 2004. (24 refs.)

This study examines the narratives shared by low-income women in addiction recovery centers about the meaning they attach to being a parent in recovery and how they view current program models that include children in daily treatment. Their stories reflect the centrality of the mothering role to women in recovery and offer insights that can guide treatment and program planning with families.

Huh D; Tristan J; Wade E; Stice E. Does problem behavior elicit poor parenting? A prospective study of adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Research 21(2): 185-204, 2006. (72 refs.)

This study tested the hypothesis that perceived parenting would show reciprocal relations with adolescents' problem behavior using longitudinal data from 496 adolescent girls. Results provided support for the assertion that female problem behavior has an adverse effect on parenting; elevated externalizing symptoms and substance abuse symptoms predicted future decreases in perceived parental support and control. There was less support for the assertion that parenting deficits foster adolescent problem behaviors; initially, low parental control predicted future increases in substance abuse but not externalizing symptoms, and low parental support did not predict future increases in externalizing or substance abuse symptoms. Results suggest that problem behavior is a more consistent predictor of parenting than parenting is of problem behavior, at least for girls during middle adolescence.

Hussey JM; Chang JJ; Kotch JB. Child maltreatment in the United States: Prevalence, risk factors, and adolescent health consequences. Pediatrics 118(3): 933-942, 2006. (60 refs.)

OBJECTIVES. The purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence of child maltreatment in the United States and examine its relationship to sociodemographic factors and major adolescent health risks. METHODS. The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health is a prospective cohort study following a national sample of adolescents into adulthood. The wave III interview, completed by 15 197 young adults in 2001-2002 (77.4% response rate), included retrospective measures of child maltreatment. We used these measures to estimate the prevalence of self-reported supervision neglect, physical neglect, physical assault, and contact sexual abuse during childhood. Next, we investigated the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics and maltreatment. Finally, we examined the association between child maltreatment and adolescent self-rated health; overweight status; depression; cigarette, alcohol, marijuana, and inhalant use; and violent behavior. RESULTS. Having been left home alone as a child, indicating possible supervision neglect, was most prevalent (reported by 41.5% of respondents), followed by physical assault (28.4%), physical neglect (11.8%), and contact sexual abuse (4.5%). Each sociodemographic characteristic was associated with >= 1 type of maltreatment, and race/ethnicity was associated with all 4. Each type of maltreatment was associated with no fewer than 8 of the 10 adolescent health risks examined. CONCLUSIONS. Self-reported childhood maltreatment was common. The likelihood of maltreatment varied across many sociodemographic characteristics. Each type of maltreatment was associated with multiple adolescent health risks.

Huver RME; Engels RCME; Vermulst AA; de Vries H. Is parenting style a context for smoking-specific parenting practices? Drug and Alcohol Dependence 89(2-3): 116-125, 2007. (74 refs.)

This study examined whether global parenting style can be regarded as a context in which smoking-specific parenting practices relate to adolescent smoking cognitions and behaviors. Data were gathered through self-administered questionnaires from 482 adolescents aged 12-19 years, who participated in the Study of Medical Information and Lifestyles in Eindhoven (SMILE). We assessed parenting style dimensions (support, strict control, psychological control), smoking-specific parenting practices (parent-child communication about smoking, anti-smoking house rules, availability of tobacco products, non-smoking agreement), smoking-related cognitions according to the I-Change Model (attitude, social norm, self-efficacy, intention), and smoking behavior. Structural equation models were computed and compared for adolescents in different parenting climates. Results showed that communication and availability were related to adolescents' attitude towards smoking. Availability was additionally associated with reduced self-efficacy to refrain from smoking. Attitude and self-efficacy were subsequently related to intention to smoke, which in turn was related to smoking behavior. No direct relations were found between anti-smoking parenting practices and adolescent smoking behavior. These results were not dependent on the parenting climate. Parenting style thus did not serve as a context for smoking-specific parenting practices, indicating that these facets of parenting operate independently, and that anti-smoking parenting practices may be effective regardless of parenting climate.

Kalesan B; Stine J; Alberg AJ. The joint influence of parental modeling and positive parental concern on cigarette smoking in middle and high school students. Journal of School Health 76(8): 402-407, 2006. (34 refs.)

The purpose of the study was to examine the interaction between parental smoking status and parental attitudes, as measured by positive parental concern, on the risk of adolescent cigarette smoking. Parental smoking and parental concern about smoking were measured in a cross-sectional study of 37,244 students, a random sample of Maryland middle and high school students, who were current or never smokers. Parental concern was classified into 3 levels: strict, moderate, and minimal. The likelihood of youths being current smokers was positively associated with both parental smoking (both versus neither parent smokes: odds ratio [OR] 3.4, 95% confidence interval [CI] 3.1-3.7) and parental concern about smoking (minimal versus strict concern: OR 2.3, 95% CI 2.1-2.4). Youths with parents who did not smoke and with strict concern had the lowest likelihood of smoking. In comparison to this group, after adjustment for other social influences the likelihood of being a current smoker was more than 5 times greater among boys (OR 5.8, 95% CI 4.5-7.4) and girls (OR 5.2, 95% CI 4.1-6.5) whose parents both smoked and were minimally concerned about smoking. Current smoking in youths was independently associated with both parental smoking and less parental concern. When these 2 factors were jointly considered, the prevalence of current smoking in youths increased both with exposure to parental modeling and reduced parental concern about smoking. The results indicate that minimal parental concern about smoking worsens the risk due to parental modeling. Parental modeling and parental attitudes act synergistically to exacerbate the likelihood of smoking.

Kuendig H; Kuntschee E. Family bonding and adolescent alcohol use: Moderating effect of living with excessive drinking parents. Alcohol and Alcoholism 41(4): 464-471, 2006. (47 refs.)

Aims: Excessive parental drinking has been shown to be positively related to adolescent alcohol use and family bonding negatively related. The aim of the present study was to determine if the perception of parental drinking moderates the relationship between family bonding and adolescent alcohol use. Methods: Linear structural equation models for multiple group comparisons were estimated based on a national representative sample of 3448 eight and ninth graders in Switzerland (mean age 14.77; SD 0.89). Results: Adjusted for gender and age, the results confirm that strong family bonds were negatively related to both frequency of alcohol intake and lifetime frequency of drunkenness. Furthermore, a positive link was found with regard to the perception of parental drinking. However, the multiple group comparison revealed that the negative relationship between bonding and adolescent alcohol use was even stronger among adolescents whose parents drink excessively than among those whose parents did not. Conclusions: These results indicate that it may be particularly important for parents in the former category to establish strong family bonds (e.g. by spending free time with their children, listening to their worries) so as to limit adolescent excessive drinking.

Kumpfer KL; Fowler MA. Parenting skills and family support programs for drug-abusing mothers. Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 12(2): 134-142, 2007. (58 refs.)

Children born to drug-using mothers can suffer from fetal alcohol or drug syndrome (FAS/FDS) or fetal alcohol or drug effect (FAE/FDE). Such children have a greater likelihood of developing acute or chronic physical, cognitive and behavioral problems. In-utero exposure to tobacco, alcohol or drugs impact on the developing fetus and, after birth, the family environment and family system exert effects on the infants and children of substance-abusing parents. Evidence-based prevention and maternal drug treatment programs focus on enhancing parental childcaring abilities, supporting parent-child attachment and encouraging family support systems to improve children's health and cognitive outcomes. FAS/FDS prevention programs, as well as selective and indicated prenatal and postnatal interventions, can improve the support given both to mother and to child, and evidence-based, in-home parenting and family-skills-training approaches are particularly useful.

Luthar SS; Sexton CC. Maternal drug abuse versus maternal depression: Vulnerability and resilience among school-age and adolescent offspring. Development and Psychopathology 19(1): 205-225, 2007. (66 refs.)

In this study of 360 low-income mother-child dyads, our primary goal was to disentangle risks linked with commonly co-occurring maternal diagnoses: substance abuse and affective/anxiety disorders. Variable- and person-based analyses suggest that, at least through children's early adolescence, maternal drug use is no more inimical for them than is maternal depression. A second goal was to illuminate vulnerability and protective processes linked with mothers' everyday functioning, and results showed that negative parenting behaviors were linked with multiple adverse child outcomes. Conversely, the other parenting dimensions showed more domain specificity; parenting stress was linked with children's lifetime diagnoses, and limit setting and closeness with children's externalizing problems and everyday competence, respectively. Results are discussed in terms of implications for resilience theory, interventions, and social policy.

Luthar SS; Suchman NE; Altomare M. Relational Psychotherapy Mothers' Group: A randomized clinical trial for substance abusing mothers. Development and Psychopathology 19(1): 243-261, 2007. (69 refs.)

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the effectiveness of the Relational Psychotherapy Mothers' Group (RPMG), a supportive parenting group intervention for substance abusing women. Sixty mothers receiving RPMG were compared to 67 women receiving recovery training (RT); both treatments supplemented treatment in the methadone clinics. At the end of the 6-month treatment period, RPMG mothers showed marginally significant improvement on child maltreatment (self-reported) and cocaine abuse based on urinalyses when compared with RT mothers; notably, children of RPMG mothers reported significantly greater improvement in emotional adjustment and depression than children of RT mothers. At 6 months follow-up, however, treatment gains were no longer apparent. Overall, the findings suggest that whereas supportive parenting interventions for substance abusing women do have some preventive potential, abrupt cessation of the therapeutic program could have deleterious consequences.

Measelle JR; Stice E; Springer DW. A prospective test of the negative affect model of substance abuse: Moderating effects of social support. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 20(3): 225-233, 2006. (69 refs.)

The authors tested whether dimensions of negative affect -- specifically, trait levels of negative emotionality and state levels of depressive symptoms -- increased risk for substance abuse onset and whether perceived social support moderated this relation using data from a 5-year prospective study of 496 school-recruited adolescent girls. Initial negative emotionality, but not depressive symptoms, and deficits in parental, but not peer, support predicted future substance abuse onset in a multivariate hazard model. Tests of the interaction between negative affect dimensions and social support suggested that support did not moderate the relation of negative affect to risk for substance abuse onset. Results provide prospective support for the etiological role in the onset of substance abuse of trait-linked negative affect and of parental support.

Petrie J; Bunn F; Byrne G. Parenting programmes for preventing tobacco, alcohol or drugs misuse in children under 18: A systematic review. Health Education Research 22(2): 177-191, 2007. (37 refs.)

We conducted a systematic review of controlled studies of parenting programmes to prevent tobacco, alcohol or drug abuse in children < 18. We searched Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, specialized Register of Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Pub Medicine, psych INFO, CINALH and SIGLE. Two reviewers independently screened studies, extracted data and assessed study quality. Data were collected on actual or intended use of tobacco, alcohol or drugs by child, and associated risk or antecedent behaviours. Due to heterogeneity we did not pool studies in a meta-analysis and instead present a narrative summary of the findings. Twenty studies met our inclusion criteria. Statistically significant self-reported reductions of alcohol use were found in six of 14 studies, of drugs in five of nine studies and tobacco in nine out of 13 studies. Three interventions reported increases of tobacco, drug and alcohol use. We concluded that parenting programmes can be effective in reducing or preventing substance use. The most effective appeared to be those that shared an emphasis on active parental involvement and on developing skills in social competence, self-regulation and parenting. However, more work is needed to investigate further the change processes involved in such interventions and their long-term effectiveness.

Steinhausen HC; Dal Mas S; Ledermann; Metzke CW. Risk factors for the development of emotional and behavioural problems in children born to drug-dependent mothers. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 15(8): 460-466, 2006. (28 refs.)

Objective: The study of biological and psychosocial risk factors for the development of emotional and behavioural problems in children of drug-dependent mothers. Method: In a sample of 52 children and drug-dependent mothers participating in a residential intervention programme emotional and behavioural problems were studied in the children by use of the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL). The Symptom-Checklist Revised (SCL-90-R) served to assess mental problems in the mother. Drug exposure during pregnancy, various psychosocial risk factors due to the drug-career, and educational status of the mother were assessed by maternal interview. A brief assessment of intelligence of the mother was included. Results: Among the various biological and psychosocial risk factors, maternal mental health problems, maternal educational status, and a small number of close social relationships correlated significantly with child outcome variables. Multiple regression analyses identified maternal mental health factors as the main predictors of child behaviour. Conclusion: Assisting drug-dependent mothers in overcoming the psychosocial sequelae of drug abuse implies also assistance to the children in terms of prevention of emotional and behavioural problems.

Suchman NE; Rounsaville B; DeCoste C; Luthar S. Parental control, parental warmth, and psychosocial adjustment in a sample of substance-abusing mothers and their school-aged and adolescent children. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 32(1): 1-10, 2007. (37 refs.)

Parenting interventions for substance-abusing adults have been broadly based on two approaches, one emphasizing parental control as a means to managing children's behavior and the second emphasizing parental warmth and sensitivity as means to fostering children's psychological development. In this investigation, we examined associations of parental control and parental warmth, respectively, with children's behavioral and psychological adjustment in a sample of 98 women enrolled in methadone maintenance and their school-aged and adolescent children. Using collateral data collected during the baseline phase of a randomized clinical trial (Luthar, S. S., Suchman, N. E., & Altomare, M. [in press). Relational Psychotherapy Mothers Group: A randomized clinical trial for substance abusing mothers [in preparation]), we tested predictions that (a) parental control would be more strongly associated with children's behavioral adjustment and (b) parental warmth would be more strongly associated with children's psychological adjustment. Both predictions were generally confirmed, although some crossover among parenting and child dimensions was also evident. Results support the theoretical stance that parental limit setting and autonomy support, as well as nurturance and involvement, are important factors, respectively, in children's behavioral and psychological adjustment.

van der Vorst H; Engels RCME; Meeus W; Dekovic M. The impact of alcohol-specific rules, parental norms about early drinking and parental alcohol use on adolescents' drinking behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 47(12): 1299-1306, 2006. (22 refs.)

Background: The present study explores the role of having rules about alcohol, parental norms about early alcohol use, and parental alcohol use in the development of adolescents' drinking behavior. It is assumed that parental norms and alcohol use affect the rules parents have about alcohol, which in turn prevents alcohol use by adolescent children. Methods: Longitudinal data collected from 416 families consisting of both parents and two adolescents ( aged 13 to 16 years) were used for the analyses. Results: Results of structural equation modeling show that having clear rules decreases the likelihood of drinking in adolescence. However, longitudinally alcohol-specific rules have only an indirect effect on adolescents' alcohol use, namely through earlier drinking. Analyses focusing on explaining the onset of drinking revealed that having strict rules was related to the postponement of drinking initiation of older and younger adolescents. Further, parental norms about adolescents' early drinking and parental alcohol use were associated with having alcohol-specific rules. Parental norms were also related to adolescents' alcohol use. Conclusions: The current study is one of the first using a full family design to provide insight into the role of alcohol-specific rules on adolescents' drinking. It was shown that having strict rules is related to postponement of drinking, and that having alcohol-specific rules depends on other factors, thus underlining the complexity of the influence of parenting on the development of adolescents' alcohol use.

Van Zundert RMP; Van der Vorst H; Vermulst AA; Engels RCME. Pathways to alcohol use among Dutch students in regular education and education for adolescents with behavioral problems: The role of parental alcohol use, general parenting practices, and alcohol-specific parenting practices. Journal of Family Psychology 20(3): 456-467, 2006. (32 refs.)

The present study explored the role of parents' alcohol use, general parenting practices (support and behavioral control), and alcohol-specific parenting practices (alcohol-specific rule enforcement and alcohol availability at home) on adolescent alcohol use. Structural equation analyses were performed on cross-sectional data from adolescents who received special education because of behavioral problems (n = 411) and from adolescents who received regular education (n = 428). The main findings show that alcohol-specific parenting practices appear to be highly important in regulating adolescent alcohol use. Parental alcohol use was related to alcohol-specific rule enforcement and alcohol availability at home. Behavioral control was also related to alcohol-specific rule enforcement. Furthermore, the relationships between parental alcohol use, parenting practices, and adolescent alcohol use did not appear to differ substantially for students in special and regular education.

Wall AE; Kohl PL. Substance use in maltreated youth: Findings from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being. Child Maltreatment 12(1): 20-30, 2007. (47 refs.)

The purpose of this study was to describe the characteristics associated with different levels of substance use in a national probability sample of maltreated 11- to 15-year-olds (n = 1, 179). Bivariate (chi-square tests) and multivariate (logistic regression) analyses were used to examine the association of adolescent substance use with demographics, placement type, and youth and family characteristics. Seventy-one percent of youth reported no use, 20% reported low levels of substance use, and approximately 9% reported moderate to high levels of use. Youth substance use was similar across placement types. Conduct problems and low caregiver relatedness were more prevalent for youth reporting higher levels of substance use. High levels of conduct problems increased the odds of substance use, whereas high caregiver monitoring decreased the odds of substance use. Caregiver monitoring may be a key tactic in attempts to reduce the likelihood of substance use in maltreated youth, regardless of placement type.

Waller MR; Swisher R. Fathers' risk factors in Fragile Families: Implications for "healthy" relationships and father involvement. Social Problems 53(3): 392-420, 2006. (69 refs.)

We use longitudinal survey and qualitative information from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine how risk factors such as physical abuse, problematic substance use, and incarceration among unmarried fathers in the study are related to fathers' early involvement with their children. The survey results indicate that nearly half of fathers have at least one risk factor and that each risk is negatively associated with paternal involvement. The results also show that fathers with risk factors are less likely to have romantic relationships with mothers and that relationships between parents mediate associations between risk factors and fathers' involvement. Qualitative interviews with a sub-sample of mothers and fathers in the study illustrate the meaning of risks for parents and the processes through which early family outcomes occur. Parents' accounts suggest that mothers often select out of relationships they deem "unhealthy" and monitor fathers' access to children, particularly in cases of physical abuse. While some fathers with risks withdraw from children, others attempt to maintain their involvement independently or as part of a strategy with the mother to address these risks with varying success. We suggest that policies to promote marriage and responsible fatherhood be mindful that some fathers they are targeting have characteristics that may not be conducive to increased involvement while other fathers face personal and institutional barriers to involvement.

Walls ML; Whitbeck LB; Hoyt DR; Johnson KD. Early-onset alcohol use among Native American youth: Examining female caretaker influence. Journal of Marriage and the Family 69(2): 451-464, 2007. (58 refs.)

This article investigates the influence of female caretaker substance use on early-onset youth drinking among Native American families in the Northern Midwest. Data include 603 Native American families, with reports from female caretakers and youths aged 10 - 13 years. Two potential caretaker influences are taken into account: adolescent modeling of caretaker behaviors and the effects of caretaker substance abuse on parenting. Results of bivariate and path analysis provide support for the influence of caretaker substance use on adolescent drinking from both perspectives; these effects vary, however, depending on the type or degree of adult substance use, or both.

White HR; McMorris BJ; Catalano RF; Fleming CB; Haggerty KP; Abbott RD. White HR//McMorris BJ//Catalano RF//Fleming CB//Haggerty KP//Abbott RD. Increases in alcohol and marijuana use during the transition out of high school into emerging adulthood: The effects of leaving home, going to college, and high school protective factors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 67(6): 810-822, 2006. (50 refs.)

This study examined the effects of leaving home and going to college on changes in the frequency of alcohol use, heavy episodic drinking, and marijuana use shortly after leaving high school. We also examined how protective factors in late adolescence predict post-high school substance use and moderate the effects of leaving home and going to college. Method: Data came from subjects (N = 319; 53% male) interviewed at the end of 12th grade and again approximately 6 months later, as part of the Raising Healthy Children project. Results: Leaving home and going to college were significantly related to increases in the frequency of alcohol use and heavy episodic drinking from high school to emerging adulthood but not to changes in marijuana use. Having fewer friends who used each substance protected against increases in the frequency of alcohol use, heavy episodic drinking, and marijuana use. Higher religiosity protected against increases in alcohol- and marijuana-use frequency. Higher parental monitoring protected against increases in heavy episodic drinking and moderated the effect of going to college on marijuana use. Lower sensation seeking lessened the effect of going to college on increases in alcohol use and heavy episodic drinking. Conclusions: To prevent increases in substance use in emerging adulthood, interventions should concentrate on strengthening prosocial involvement and parental monitoring during high school. In addition, youths with high sensation seeking might be targeted for added intervention.

Wood E; Mattick RP; Burns L; Shakeshaft A. The costs and utility of parental drug-testing in child protection: A review of the available literature and commentary. NDARC Technical Report No. 242. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (Australia), 2006. (88 refs.)

AIMS: The aim of this project was to undertake a comprehensive review of the research evidence related to the utility and cost of parental drug-testing in child protection cases. [NB. Assessment of alcohol misuse has not been included in this report]. FINDINGS: The potential effects of parental substance abuse range widely and, while the causal relationship between parental substance abuse and child abuse or neglect could be considered at length, suffice to state that there is an increased risk of potential negative effects on the family. Drug use in the context of true drug dependence is of greater concern than lower levels of consumption. The literature on the value of parental drug-testing in the context of child protection is small, but suggests its appropriate use is feasible and that it can promote better outcomes in child-at-risk cases. Overall, it seems practical to recommend the use of parental drug-testing, assuming there is reasonable suspicion of substance abuse, multiple tests are undertaken over periods ranging between two to six months or more (depending on level of use), confirmation testing is undertaken on all positive results, and parents who are seeking treatment or found to be drug abusing/dependent are immediately referred to treatment in a supportive fashion. BEST PRACTICE IN DRUG-TESTING: Drug-testing is limited in its ability to determine dependence and/or impairment in relation to parenting ability; however, drug-testing may have some utility in leading to treatment and/or confirmation of self-reports of use. Urine or hair testing are the recommended methods of drug-testing in the context of child protection. The use of frequent (weekly or more often), regular, monitored urine testing is one best practice model with good reliability and validity. Hair testing has significant benefits that should be weighed up in terms of convenience and the desired window of observation. Both are reliable methods for assessing the extent of ongoing illicit drug use. DRUG USE AND PARENTING CAPACITY: There is no level of illicit drug use that can be claimed to be reasonable, if it inhibits parents' ability to effectively and safely parent their children, although regular daily use and preoccupation with use is the most debilitating. Binge use for consecutive days will cause dysfunction for the period of the binge use and for the subsequent days of recovery. If use is to occur, then infrequent use (weekly to monthly or less often) is the pattern least likely to compromise parenting skills. Children of different ages will be affected differently by substance using parents. Infants and young children will be more prone to suffer the effects of neglect, such as malnourishment and poor parental bonding. In addition to experiencing these effects, older children may also take on the role and responsibilities of the parent, or imitate the parent's behaviour. It is important to note that not all substance using parents experience impaired parenting capacity; however, it seems reasonable to assume that longer term dependent parents may be diminished in their capacity to parent effectively, due to the significant amount of time given to drug seeking and taking. There is a high level of mental health disorders among drug dependent people. In particular, there are high levels of post-traumatic stress disorder, borderline and antisocial personality disorder and anxiety and depression. It is likely these will also impact on ability to parent. TREATMENT ISSUES: There are a variety of treatment modalities available, although overall evidence suggests the longer a person remains in treatment the better the outcome, with respect to diminished drug use. There are no gender differences in treatment compliance; however, there is some evidence to suggest women may benefit more from treatment catering for women only, and family-focused treatment may be beneficial to parents with children.