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CORK Bibliography: Mexican-Americans

66 citations. January 2003 to present

Prepared: March 2012

Alvarez J; Olson BD; Jason LA; Davis MI; Ferrari JR. Heterogeneity among Latinas and Latinos entering substance abuse treatment: Findings from a national database. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 26(4): 277-284, 2004. (59 refs.)

The current study examined differences in 30-day and lifetime substance use for a sample of Mexican American, Puerto Rican, and Cuban American men and women from the Drug Evaluation Network System, a national database on individuals seeking substance abuse treatment. There were significant gender and ethnic differences in recent and lifetime substance use after controlling for age, years of education, employment, medical, and psychological problems. Lifetime and 30-day substance use rates found in this study do not coincide with prevalence rates found in community samples of Latinas/os, indicating that the patterns of substance use may be different among individuals who seek substance abuse treatment than among those in the general population. The results of this study highlight the heterogeneity of Latinas/os who abuse substances.

Barnett NP; Monti PM; Cherpitel C; Bendtsen P; Borges G; Colby SM et al. Identification and brief treatment of alcohol problems with medical patients: An international perspective. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 27(2): 262-270, 2003. (51 refs.)

This article summarizes the proceedings of a symposium at the 2002 RSA meeting in San Francisco, California. The chair was Peter Monti and co-chair was Nancy Barnett. The aim of the symposium was to bring together researchers from the United States, Sweden, and Mexico to present current findings on the development and implementation of screening and intervention research in Emergency Departments (ED). Cheryl Cherpitel presented findings on the performance of the Rapid Alcohol Problems Screen (RAPS4), a 4-item instrument used for screening for alcohol dependence and harmful drinking in the ED. Dr. Cherpitel also presented for her collaborator, Guilherme Borges, their research on the performance of a number of screening measures including the RAPS among Mexicans and Mexican-Americans with alcohol-related disorders in the ED. Preben Bendtsen described the implementation of an alcohol screening and intervention procedure delivered by ordinary ED staff in Sweden. Nancy Barnett presented data on characteristics related to readiness to change alcohol use in a sample of young adults who Were treated in an ED for injury or intoxication.

Barrera M; Hageman DN; Gonzales NA. Revisiting Hispanic adolescents' resilience to the effects of parental problem drinking and life stress. American Journal of Community Psychology 34(1/2): 83-94, 2004. (40 refs.)

Two previous studies found that life stress and parental alcoholism were not as highly related to distress for Hispanic adolescents as they were for European American adolescents (M. Barrera Jr., S.A. Li, and L. Chassin, 1993, 1995). Those findings could be interpreted as evidence of Hispanic youths' resilience, but limitations of the stress measure and the homogeneity of the Hispanic sample threatened this interpretation. The present study improved on those previous studies by using a new measure of uncontrollable stressors and a more heterogeneous Mexican American sample. Participants in this study were 175 Mexican American and 59 European American adolescents and their parents. Unlike the previous studies, results did not show that Mexican American adolescents were more resilient to parental problem drinking or life stress than were European American adolescents. Overall, life stress was related to adolescents', mothers', and fathers' reports of adolescents' psychological distress above and beyond the effects of ethnicity and socioeconomic factors.

Benowitz NL; Bernert JT; Caraballo RS; Holiday DB; Wang JT. Optimal serum cotinine levels for distinguishing cigarette smokers and nonsmokers within different racial/ethnic groups in the United States between 1999 and 2004. American Journal of Epidemiology 169(2): 236-248, 2009. (19 refs.)

Cotinine, a metabolite of nicotine, is widely used to distinguish smokers from nonsmokers in epidemiologic studies and smoking-cessation clinical trials. As the magnitude of secondhand smoke exposure declines because of proportionally fewer smokers and more clean-indoor-air regulations, the optimal cotinine cutpoint with which to distinguish smokers from nonsmokers is expected to change. The authors analyzed data on 3,078 smokers and 13,078 nonsmokers from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 1999-2004. Optimal serum cotinine concentrations for discriminating smokers from nonsmokers were determined using receiver operator characteristic curve analysis. Optimal cotinine cutpoints were 3.08 ng/mL (sensitivity = 96.3%, specificity = 97.4%) and 2.99 ng/mL (sensitivity = 86.5%, specificity = 93.1%) for adults and adolescents, respectively. Among adults, optimal cutpoints differed by race/ethnicity: They were 5.92 ng/mL, 4.85 ng/mL, and 0.84 ng/mL for non-Hispanic blacks, non-Hispanic whites, and Mexican Americans, respectively. Among adolescents, cutpoints were 2.77 ng/mL, 2.95 ng/mL, and 1.18 ng/mL for non-Hispanic blacks, non-Hispanic whites, and Mexican Americans, respectively. Use of the currently accepted cutpoint of 14 ng/mL overestimates the number of nonsmokers in comparison with the proposed new overall cutpoint of 3 ng/mL or the race/ethnicity-specific cutpoints of 1-6 ng/mL.

Blume AW; Orona JA; Perez S; Villanueva MR. Alcohol expectancies significantly predicted consequences at three month follow-up among Mexican-American college students. (meeting abstract). Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 28(5 Supplement): 101A-101A, 2004. (2 refs.)

Borges G; Medina-Mora ME; Lown A; Ye Y; Robertson MJ; Cherpitel C et al. Alcohol use disorders in national samples of Mexcicans and Mexican-Americans: The Mexican National Addiction Survey and the US National Alcohol Survey. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 28(3): 425-449, 2006. (33 refs.)

The authors show associations between immigration and alcohol disorders using data from the 1995 and 2000 U.S. National Alcohol Surveys and the 1998 Mexico National Household Survey on Addictions. The prevalence of alcohol dependence was 4.8% for the Mexicans, 4.2% for the Mexico-born immigrants, and 6.6% for the U.S.-born Mexican Americans. They found a general lack of significance for the immigration variables with few consistent dose-response findings for alcohol use disorders. High acculturation was associated with higher risks for women; however, unexpectedly, high acculturation was associated with lower risks for males. Among Mexican Americans, the impact of immigration to the United States on the prevalence of alcohol use disorders differs by gender. Male and female differences and possible sources of immigrant selection are important issues for future research.

Bray JH; Adams GJ; Getz JG; McQueen A. Individuation, peers, and adolescent alcohol use: A latent growth analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71(3): 553-564, 2003. (81 refs.)

The study used latent growth modeling to investigate longitudinal relationships between individuation, peer alcohol use, and adolescent alcohol use among African American, Mexican American, and non-Hispanic White adolescents (N = 6,048) from 7th, 8th, and 9th grades over a 3-year period. Initial levels of peer alcohol use were significantly related to changes in adolescents' alcohol use, whereas initial adolescent alcohol use also significantly related to changes in peers' alcohol use, suggesting a bidirectional relationship. Higher levels of intergenerational individuation were related to smaller increases in adolescent alcohol use and higher levels of separation were related to larger increases in youth drinking. The findings were similar across ethnic groups. Implications for development of prevention and intervention programs are discussed.

Ceballos NA; Wiese B; Hovland J. Gender, body image, and attitudes about tobacco in the United States-Mexico border region: Implications for individualized prevention and treatment efforts for adolescents and emerging adults. Journal of Addictions Nursing 20(2): 66-70, 2009. (20 refs.)

Many people smoke to control weight and/or reduce stress. Previous studies have shown a link between body mass index (BMI) and reasons for smoking among addicted adults. Our 2006-2007 data extended previous research to include a gender comparison in a diverse sample of 142 college students in the urban United States-Mexico border region. Analyses of variance revealed gender differences among participants of normal weight for smoking to alleviate negative emotion and to build self-confidence. Responses of overweight males were similar to those of both normal- and over-weight females. Implications and future directions for smoking prevention/treatment among adolescents are discussed.

Cepeda A; Valdez A. Risk behaviors among young Mexican American gang-associated females: Sexual relations, partying, substance use, and crime. Journal of Adolescent Research 18(1): 90-106, 2003. (45 refs.)

This research focuses on young, Mexican American girls who are not formal gang members yet participate in street-based activities of male gangs and engage in risk, behaviors. These females comprise a larger proportion associated with male gangs in inner-city neighborhoods than actual female gang members. Using a qualitative design, the article presents a typology of Mexican American females that reveals a hierarchy based on exposure to four risk-related activities: sexual relations, partying, substance use, and crime. Findings illustrate how outcomes associated with these activities vary according to the girl's relationship to the male gang and status within the community. Also, regardless of their relationship to the, gang, participation in these activities resulted in different degrees of negative outcomes. The study concludes that problems associated with these females are not properly viewed simply as individual problems but rather should be seen within the social, cultural, and economic conditions of their environment.

Chakraborty BM; Mueller WH; Reeves R; Poston WSC; Holscher DM; Quill B; Hanis CL; Foreyt JP. Migration history, health behaviors, and cardiovascular disease risk factors in overweight Mexican-American women. Ethnicity & Disease 13(1): 94-108, 2003. (48 refs.)

Purpose: This research examined whether the migration history of overweight Mexican-American women had an independent effect on cardiovascular risk factors, or whether it was mediated by health behavior changes. Data and Methods: Cross-sectional data from 390 overweight, non-diabetic Mexican-American women (aged 18 to 65 years), all recruited from Starr County, Texas, were used for this analysis. Migration history was inferred from birthplaces of subjects and relatives, and length of residence in the United States. Health behaviors included tobacco and alcohol use, sleeping, exercise, and dietary practices. The cardiovascular disease risk factor variables (CDRFVs) studied were plasma glucose, abdominal obesity, blood pressures, and blood lipids. A migration history score (MHS) was developed from factor analysis, almost equally contributed to by the 9 migration history variables. Healthy habits were defined by 6 variables, and 3 factors (blood pressures, lipids/glucose, and body fat/glucose) were used for the CDRFVs. Findings and Conclusion: MHS was correlated positively with socioeconomic status, and negatively with family stress. Older women had healthier drinking and sleeping habits. Women with a higher migration history score exhibited poorer exercise habits, and increased blood pressures. After adjusting for the effect of healthy exercise habits on blood pressures, the impact of migration history on blood pressures became non-significant (P>.05), leading to the conclusion that healthy exercise behaviors mediated the negative relationship of MHS with blood pressures. Age was independently positively correlated with all CDRFVs. Age also weakly moderated the negative relationship of MHS and healthy exercise habits.

Chalela P; Velez LF; Ramirez AG. Social influences, and attitudes and beliefs associated with smoking among border Latino youth. Journal of School Health 77(4): 187-195, 2007. (45 refs.)

BACKGROUND: Adolescent smoking rates have declined among all ethnic groups since the late 1990s. However, despite the recent declines and intervention efforts, today smoking remains a serious problem among youth, with a quarter of adolescents being current smokers by the time they complete 12th grade. This problem is particularly prevalent among Latino youth, who have among the highest rates of lifetime and past-30-day use. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between psychosocial factors and the smoking behavior of Latino youth living along the Mexico-US border. METHODS: A convenient sample of 2471 middle and high school Latino students was surveyed in fall 2000. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine the association between study risk factors and youth smoking behavior. RESULTS: The strongest predictor of lifetime and past-30-day smoking was peer influence; however, the strength of the association was greater with recent use. There were also differences in the influence of family and attitudes and beliefs between the 2 groups. CONCLUSIONS: These differences need to be taken into consideration to guide development of tailored prevention and control interventions aimed at this specific group. These efforts should address social influences to smoke, particularly those from peers; promote changes in attitudes and beliefs toward smoking; increase understanding of the addictive nature of nicotine; and provide development of skills young people need to resist social and environmental pressures to smoke. Strict control and enforcement measures are needed to completely eliminate the sale of cigarettes to minors.

Cherpitel CJ; Bond J. DUI recidivism: A comparison of Mexican Americans and whites in a northern California county. (rapid communication). Addictive Behaviors 28(5): 963-969, 2003. (13 refs.)

Objective: While Hispanic offenders for driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) in California are more likely to have a history of multiple offenses compared to whites, little is known about characteristics associated with DUI recidivism in either ethnic group. Demographic and DUI conviction characteristics associated with DUI recidivism are analyzed among Mexican American and white DUI offenders in a Northern California county. Method: A sample of 459 primarily Mexican Americans and 490 whites were randomly selected from records supplied by the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) on over 16,000 DUI offenders in the county during a 3-year period. DMV data on DUI convictions in the 1- and 5-year period preceding the identifying DUI offense and the year following the identifying offense (the recidivism conviction) were analyzed. Results: Rates of recidivism were significantly lower for Mexican Americans (5%) compared to whites (11%) who were arrested for DUI but not convicted, but higher for those convicted (12% vs. 5%). While conviction status of the identifying DUI offense was not predictive of recidivism among Mexican Americans, a DUI conviction in the preceding year was significantly predictive. Among white arrestees, receiving a conviction was significantly, and negatively, predictive of recidivism, but among those who were convicted, a previous DUI conviction in the last year was predictive of recidivism. Referral to a DUI treatment program was not a significant predictor of recidivism among those convicted in either ethnic group. Conclusions: The data suggest that conviction for a DUI may not play the same role in the likelihood of subsequent DUI convictions for Mexican Americans as for whites, and this difference may need to be considered in DUI treatment programs. Additional research on ethnic differences in DUI offenses and recidivism over longer periods of follow-up is needed to determine ethnic-specific intervention and prevention strategies for DUI.

Cherpitel CJ; Robertson M; Ye Y; Borges G; Bautista CF; Lown A et al. Comorbidity for alcohol use disorders and drug use in Mexican-origin groups: Comparison of data from national alcohol surveys in the U.S. and Mexico. Substance Use & Misuse 42(11): 1685-1703, 2007. (53 refs.)

The comorbidity, separately, of alcohol dependence and consequences of drinking with illicit drug use is compared between Mexicans and Mexicans Americans, using data from the 1995 and 2000 U. S. National Alcohol Surveys (n = 830) and the 1998 Mexico National Household Survey on Addictions (n = 3313). Among drinkers, comorbidity was significantly more prevalent among Mexican Americans than among Mexicans and was positively associated with level of acculturation among Mexican Americans. Although data may not be generalizable, they are important for a better understanding of cultural influences on the development of comorbid substance abuse conditions among Mexicans immigrating to the United States and their substance abuse treatment needs.

Delva J; Wallace JM; O'Malley PM; Bachman JG; Johnston LD; Schulenberg JE. The epidemiology of alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine use among Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Cuban American, and other Latin American eighth-grade students in the United States: 1991-2002. American Journal of Public Health 95(4): 696-702, 2005. (37 refs.)

Objectives. We compared trends in and correlates of marijuana use, cocaine use, and heavy alcohol use for adolescents of Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Cuban, and other Latin American heritage in the United States. Methods. We used/examined data from nationally representative samples of eighth-grade Hispanic students who participated in the Monitoring the Future study during the years 1991-2002 (n=24235). Results. Drug use was significantly higher among boys and adolescents of almost all Hispanic ethnicities who did not live with both parents. In addition, drug use differed considerably according to ethnic group on language first spoken, parental education, urbanicity, and region. Conclusions. A better understanding of the homogeneity and heterogeneity of drug use patterns within and between Hispanic groups should assist in the development of prevention programs.

Du YL; Nie YQ; Li YY; Wan YJY. The association between the SLC6A3 VNTR 9-repeat allele and alcoholism: A meta-analysis. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 35(9): 1625-1634, 2011. (52 refs.)

Background: Dopamine transporter gene (SLC6A3) represents a promising candidate involved in the development of alcoholism. This study aimed to explore the association between the 9-repeat allele (A9) of a 40-bp variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphism in the 3' untranslated region (3' UTR) of the SLC6A3 gene and alcoholism. Methods: The SLC6A3 VNTR was genotyped by PCR in unrelated Mexican Americans including 337 controls and 365 alcoholics. Pearson's chi-square test or Fisher's exact test was used to compare the genotype and allele distribution. Meta-analyses were performed for population-based case-control association studies of the SLC6A3 VNTR polymorphism with alcoholism. Data were analyzed under random effect models with the Comprehensive Meta-analysis (v.2) statistical software package. Results: In Mexican Americans, no significant difference was found in allele and genotype distribution between controls and alcoholics or between controls and alcoholics with alcohol withdrawal seizure (AWS) or delirium tremens (DT) (unadjusted p > 0.05). A total of 13 research articles were included in the meta-analyses. No significant difference of the SLC6A3 VNTR A9 was noted between controls and alcoholics at the genotypic and allelic level when all ethnic populations, only Caucasian populations, or only Asian populations were considered (p > 0.05). Significant associations were observed between SLC6A3 VNTR A9 and alcoholics with AWS or DT at the genotypic as well as allelic level when all ethnic populations or only Caucasian populations were considered (p < 0.05, OR 1.5-2.1). Conclusions: Meta-analyses suggest a possible association between the SLC6A3 VNTR A9 and alcoholic subgroup with AWS or DT.

Du YL; Yang M; Yeh HW; Wan YJY. The association of exon 3 VNTR polymorphism of the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene with alcoholism in Mexican Americans. Psychiatry Research 177(3): 358-360, 2010. (11 refs.)

In this study, the variable number tandem repeats (VNTR) polymorphism of a 48-bp sequence located in exon 3 of the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene was genotyped in 365 alcoholic and 337 non-alcoholic Mexican Americans. Logistic regression showed that genotypes without the 7-repeat allele were risk factors for alcoholism. However, linear regression did not find an association between DRD4 VNTR and MAXDRINKS, which was defined as the maximum number of drinks consumed within 24 h. Our results indicate the presence of an association between DRD4 VNTR and alcoholism in Mexican Americans.

Du YL; Nie YQ; Li YY; Wan YJY. The association between the SLC6A3 VNTR 9-repeat allele and alcoholism: A meta-analysis. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 35(9): 1625-1634, 2011. (52 refs.)

Ehlers CL; Gilder DA; Criado JR; Caetano R. Sleep quality and alcohol-use disorders in a select population of young-adult Mexican Americans. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 71(6): 879-884, 2010. (57 refs.)

Objective: Adult male Hispanics, particularly those born in the United States, are more likely to drink frequently and to consume larger quantities of alcohol than Whites or Blacks. Because alcohol and other substance-use disorders are frequently associated with disturbances in sleep, this study investigated measures of sleep quality and substance-use disorders in a select sample of young-adult Mexican Americans. Method: Diagnoses of alcohol-use disorders and other psychiatric disorders (based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition, Revised), results from the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), family history of alcohol dependence, and measures of acculturation stress were obtained from 294 Mexican American young adults, ages 18-30, who were literate in English and were residing legally in San Diego County. Results: Lifetime diagnoses of alcohol-use disorders, family history of alcohol dependence, acculturation stress, and lifetime diagnoses of major depressive disorder were all correlated with significantly poorer quality sleep as indexed by the global score on the PSQI. Regression analyses also revealed that gender was correlated with habitual bedtime, whereas drug dependence (cannabis, stimulants, and/or opiates) was significantly correlated with how long it took to fall asleep, major depressive disorder with the number of hours spent sleeping a night, and anxiety disorders and major depressive disorder with waking up in the early morning or middle of the night. Conclusions: These data suggest that alcohol-use disorders are significantly associated with poorer quality of sleep in this population of young adults and that substance-use disorders may affect different aspects of sleep than anxiety and depressive disorders do. These findings may be helpful in designing prevention and intervention programs for alcohol-use disorders in this high-risk population.

Elek E; Miller-Day M; Hecht ML. Influences of personal, injunctive, and descriptive norms on early adolescent substance use. Journal of Drug Issues 36(1): 147-171, 2006. (67 refs.)

Social norms play an important role in adolescent substance use. Norm focus theory (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990) distinguishes three types of norms: injunctive, descriptive, and personal. This study examines the relative influences of these three norms, as well as the moderating effects of gender and ethnicity, on the concurrent substance use of 2,245 Mexican or Mexican-American students, 676 students of other Latino or multiethnic Latino origin, 756 non-Hispanic White students, and 353 African-American students. Personal norms appear to be the strongest significant predictor of substance use. Descriptive, parental injunctive, and friend injunctive norms also demonstrate significant, though weaker influences. Controlling for intentions reduces the predictive ability of each type of norm, especially personal norms. Gender moderates the relationship between norms and substance use with the relationships generally stronger for males. Personal norms act as stronger predictors of some types of substance use for Mexican/Mexican Americans.

Fisher DG; Reynolds GL; Moreno-Branson CM; Jaffe A; Wood MM; Klahn JA et al. Drug treatment needs of Hispanic drug users in Long Beach, California. Journal of Drug Issues 34(4): 879-894, 2004. (49 refs.)

The objective of this study is to investigate differences between Hispanic and non-Hispanic drug users in Long Beach, CA, with respect to drug use, HIV risk behaviors, and drug treatment experience and to explore the dissimilarities between Hispanic drug users who identify their family origin as Mexican American compared to those who identify their family origin as Mexican. We recruited 1, 728 drug users into an HIV risk reduction intervention; of these, 404 were Hispanic. The Risk Behavior Assessment (RBA) was used to collect information on demographics, drug and sex risk behaviors, and drug treatment experience. Hispanic drug users are significantly more likely to inject drugs than non-Hispanic drug users and were found to have a higher mean number of injections in the last 30 days. Hispanic drug users were more likely to have taken part in drug treatment programs, specifically methadone detoxification and maintenance programs. Self-identified Mexican drug users were less likely to have ever attended a drug treatment program than were Mexican-American drug users. Greater availability of drug treatment programs for monolingual and bilingual Hispanic injectors is needed.

Garcia JIR; Manongdo JA; Cruz-Santiago M. The family as mediator of the impact of parent youth acculturation/enculturation and inner-city stressors on Mexican American youth substance use. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 16(3): 404-412, 2010. (57 refs.)

Youth substance use was investigated in a sample of Mexican-origin mothers and youth (93 dyads totaling 186 individuals). We tested the hypotheses that both acculturation and inner-city risk factors impact substance use largely because they undermine family relationships. Mothers and youth completed self-report measures of acculturation and enculturation. Youth completed questionnaires of family relationships, inner-city risk factors, and substance use. Youth substance use was measured with an index of lifetime alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use based on the Youth Risk Behavior Survey. As predicted, mother youth (dyadic) acculturation/enculturation, as well as exposure to violence, were significantly associated with substance use. Family cohesion mediated the impact of violence exposure on substance use. However, both cohesion and violence had unique and significant associations with substance use. Furthermore, family relationships did not mediate the link between substance use and mother youth acculturation or mother youth enculturation. Results underscore the need to develop and test hypotheses that link Latino youth substance use with both acculturation and inner-city contexts that do not solely rely on family relationships as mediators.

Grant BF; Stinson FS; Dawson DA; Chou PS. Acculturation and lifetime prevalence of DSM-VI psychiatric disorders among Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic Whites in the US: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey an Alcohol and Related Conditions. (meeting abstract). Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 28(5 Supplement): 198A-198A, 2004. (0 refs.)

Guilamo-Ramos V; Jaccard J; Johansson M; Turrisi R. Binge drinking among Latino youth: Role of acculturation-related variables. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 18(2): 135-142, 2004. (33 refs.)

This research examined the relationship between acculturation-related variables and binge drinking behavior among nationally representative samples of Mexican American, Cuban American, and Puerto Rican youth. It explored the relationship between length of residence in the United States, type of language spoken in the home (Spanish vs. English) and binge drinking in each of these subgroups. Results suggest that Latino youths with no prior history of alcohol consumption remain largely unaffected by these acculturation-related variables. Youth with a previous history of alcohol consumption experience greater likelihood of binge drinking as a function of the acculturation-related variables, but the relationships are complex.

Gutierres SE; Barr A. The relationship between attitudes toward pregnancy and contraception use among drug users. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 24(1): 19-29, 2003. (80 refs.)

Use of alcohol and drugs during pregnancy is regarded as a serious problem in the medical field. The current study explored gender and ethnic differences in attitudes and behaviors related to sexuality and contraceptive use among European American, Mexican American and Native American female and male clients in drug recovery programs. The study also examined the relationship between sexual abuse, concern for pregnancy, concern for contracting sexually transmitted diseases and contraception use among women drug users. Results showed gender and ethnic differences in attitudes toward pregnancy, abortion and contraceptive use. In addition, both Mexican American and Native American women who had a high concern for pregnancy were more likely to use birth control when they reported sexual abuse than when they reported no abuse. In contrast, European American women with a high concern for pregnancy showed a tendency to use birth control less when they reported abuse than when they did not. The observed attitudinal and behavioral differences between genders and ethnic groups are discussed in relation to design of treatment program components to increase contraceptive use and decrease unwanted pregnancies among drug users.

Hecht ML; Graham JW; Elek E. The Drug Resistance Strategies intervention: Program effects on substance use. Health Education 20(3): 267-276, 2006. (43 refs.)

This study evaluates the Drug Resistance Strategies (DRS) project, a culturally grounded, communication-based, substance use prevention program implemented in 35 middle schools in Phoenix, Arizona. The intervention consisted of 10 lessons taught by the classroom teacher that imparted the knowledge, motivation, and skills needed to resist drug offers. The evaluation used growth modeling to analyze significant differences in average postintervention substance use (alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana) and growth of use over the course of the study. The study involved 6,298 seventh graders (65% Mexican/Mexican American) who responded to at least 1 of 4 questionnaires (1 pretest and 3 follow-up measures). When compared to a control group, the DRS intervention appeared to significantly limit the increase in the number of students reporting recent substance use, especially alcohol and marijuana use. The multicultural version of the curriculum proved most broadly effective, followed by the version targeting Mexican American youth. The development of a culturally grounded prevention curriculum for Mexican American youth expands the population being served by interventions. Moreover, the success of the multicultural curriculum version, which has the broadest application, provides particular promise, and the article demonstrates how a growth modeling approach can be used to evaluate a communication-based intervention by analyzing changes over time rather than differences between the pretest and posttest scores.

Hecht ML; Graham JW; Elek E. The Drug Resistance Strategies intervention: Program effects on substance use. Health Education 20(3): 267-276, 2006. (43 refs.)

2006, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Hernandez DV; Skewes MC; Resor MR; Villanueva MR; Hanson BS; Blume AW. A pilot test of an alcohol skills training programme for Mexican-American college students. International Journal of Drug Policy 17(4, Special Issue): 320-328, 2006. (50 refs.)

The alcohol skills training program for college students (ASTP) is an empirically supported intervention to reduce the harmful consequences of drinking behaviour among college students in the United States (US). However, ASTP had not been previously tested among college student samples in other cultures. In addition, very little is known about how to intervene upon risky alcohol use among Mexican-American college students, although this population is at high risk for alcohol abuse. In this study, the ASTP was revised to meet the cultural and language needs of bilingual Mexican-American college students. Mexican-American undergraduates (N=109) attending a predominantly Latino university located along the US-Mexico border were randomly assigned to one of two intervention groups (manual-only and full ASTP). Participants were assessed at three time points (baseline, 3-month follow-up, and 12-month follow-up) to determine drinking patterns and alcohol-related consequences. Study results found that Mexican-American college students in both conditions consumed less alcohol and experienced fewer alcohol-related consequences after the intervention. The culturally relevant ASTP may be a promising harm reduction programme for Mexican-American college students, and ASTP strategies appear to be transportable into other cultures.

Hodge DR; Marsiglia FF; Nieri T. Religion and substance use among youths of Mexican heritage: A social capital perspective. Social Work Research 35(3): 137-146, 2011. (50 refs.)

Despite elevated levels of substance use among many Latino youths, there has been little research on protective factors against such use. In keeping with federal commitments to address health disparities, this prospective study examined the protective influence of religion on substance use among a school-based sample (N = 804) of youths of Mexican heritage in the American Southwest. Drawing from the social capital literature, the authors posited that both integration into religious networks and trust in religious values at time 1 (T1) would predict less likelihood of using substances at time 2 (T2) but that exposure to religious norms at T1 would not predict subsequent substance use at T2. The hypotheses regarding religious networks and religious norms were largely confirmed, whereas little support emerged for the hypothesis regarding religious values. The results are discussed in light of the various pathways through which religion may exhibit a protective influence.

Jimenez-Castro L; Hare E; Medina R; Raventos H; Nicolini H; Mendoza R et al. Substance use disorder comorbidity with schizophrenia in families of Mexican and Central American Ancestry. Schizophrenia Research 120(1-3): 87-94, 2010. (46 refs.)

Objectives: The aims of this study were to estimate the frequency and course of substances use disorders in Latino patients with schizophrenia and to ascertain risk factors associated with substance use disorders in this population. Method: We studied 518 subjects with schizophrenia recruited for a genetic study from the Southwest United States, Mexico, and Central America (Costa Rica and Guatemala). Subjects were assessed using structured interviews and a best estimate consensus process. Logistic regression, chi(2), t test, Fisher's exact test, and Yates' correction, as appropriate, were performed to assess the sociodemographic variables associated with dual diagnosis. We defined substance use disorder as either alcohol or substance abuse or dependence. Results: Out of 518 patients with schizophrenia, 121 (23.4%) had substance use disorders. Comorbid substance use disorders were associated with male gender, residence in the United States, immigration of Mexican men to the United States, history of depressive syndrome or episode, and being unemployed. The most frequent substance use disorder was alcohol abuse/dependence, followed by marijuana abuse/dependence, and solvent abuse/dependence. Conclusion: This study provides data suggesting that depressive episode or syndrome, unemployment, male gender, and immigration of Mexican men to the United States were factors associated with substance use disorder comorbidity in schizophrenia. Binary logistic regression showed that country of residence was associated with substance use disorder in schizophrenic patients. The percentage of subjects with comorbid substance use disorders was higher in the Latinos living in the United States compared with subjects living in Central America and Mexico.

Kam JA; Matsunaga M; Hecht ML; Ndiaye K. Extending the theory of planned behavior to predict alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use among youth of Mexican heritage. Prevention Science 10(1): 41-53, 2009. (67 refs.)

This study examined the applicability of extending the theory of planned behavior to explain the normative processes in substance use among Mexican-heritage youth. The theory identifies norms, attitudes, and perceived behavioral control as predictors of intentions, which in turn, predict behaviors. To date, the theory had a limited conceptualization of norms and had not been extended to youth of Mexican descent, one of the fastest growing segments of the U.S. population and one at particular risk for alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use. Based on norm focus theory, it was hypothesized that norms are multidimensional, consisting of parental injunctive, peer injunctive, descriptive, and personal substance use norms. Second, it was hypothesized that parental injunctive, peer injunctive, and descriptive norms indirectly affect substance use intentions through attitudes, personal norms, and perceived behavioral control. The third hypothesis postulated that the model would operate differently based on Mexican-heritage youths' country of origin. Mexican-heritage youth (N = 1,499) from 30 elementary schools in Phoenix, AZ completed questionnaires in three waves over 18 months as part of a larger study. The findings supported the first hypothesis, showing the multidimensionality of norms. The second hypothesis was partially supported by findings from a multi-group multilevel path analysis using Mplus. Descriptive norms' association with intentions was partially mediated by attitudes, personal norms, and perceived behavioral control, while parental and peer injunctive norms were fully mediated, partially supporting the second hypothesis. Contrary to the third hypothesis, the mediation model did not differ based on Mexican-heritage youths' country of origin.

Kelly K; Comello MLG; Stanley LR; Gonzalez GR. The power of theme and language in multi-cultural communities: Which tobacco prevention messages are most persuasive to Mexican-American youth? Journal of Advertising Research 50(3): 265-278, 2010. (62 refs.)

This article reports on an experiment conducted that tested anti-tobacco advertising strategies aimed at a bicultural Mexican-American youth audience. The direct effects of three advertising themes (negative health consequences, social norms against smoking, and tobacco industry manipulation) and three language executions (English, Spanish, and "Spanglish") on adolescent Hispanics' evaluations of the advertisements were examined using a multilevel modeling approach. Additionally, participant-level measures for acculturation and tobacco-related attitudes and behaviors as potential moderators were included. Although all the tested advertisements were viewed favorably, results suggest that a negative health theme may be most effective in a community-wide campaign because it evokes the least amount of counter-arguing among smokers while, at the same time, eliciting positive evaluations from nonsmokers. Results also support the use of either Spanglish or English in the design of anti-tobacco advertising aimed at Mexican-American youths. The study contributes to practical knowledge by examining these factors in stimuli with a high level of ecological validity.

Konishi T; Calvillo M; Leng AS; Feng J; Lee T; Lee H et al. ADH32 and CYP2E1 c2 alleles increase the risk of alcoholism in Mexican American men. Experimental and Molecular Pathology* 74(2): 183-189, 2003. (44 refs.)

The goal of this study was to identify the association between the polymorphisms of genes encoding alcohol metabolizing enzymes and alcoholism. In the present study, alcohol dehydrogenase 2 (ADH2), alcohol dehydrogenase 3 (ADH3), aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2), and cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) genes were studied. The research sample included 101 male Mexican American alcoholics and 104 male Mexican American nonalcoholics that served as controls. The following results of the study were seen: (1) low frequency in Mexican Americans of the alleles ADH2*2 (4.3%) and ALDH2*2 (0%), which are considered protective against alcohol drinking; (2) no association between these alleles and alcohol dependence; (3) a strong association between ADH3 genotype and alcoholism; (4) an association between the CYP2E1 RsaI c2 allele and alcohol dependence; (5) much higher CYP2E1 c2 allele frequency in subjects whose alcohol drinking onset age is younger than 25; (6) among the 101 alcoholics, only 18 subjects carrying neither ADH3*2 nor CYP2E1 c2 alleles; and (7) for those subjects who have an ADH*1/*1 background, a strong association between CYP2E1 RsaI/DraI genotype and alcoholism. It is suggested that taken together, the ADH3*2 and CYP2E1 c2/C alleles may independently contribute to the development of alcoholism in Mexican American men.

Konishi T; Calvillo M; Leng AS; Lin KM; Wan YJY. Polymorphisms of the dopamine D-2 receptor, serotonin transporter, and GABA(A) receptor beta(3) subunit genes and alcoholism in Mexican-Americans. Alcohol 32(1): 45-52, 2004. (70 refs.)

The etiology of alcohol dependence is a complex interaction of psychosocial and biologic factors. To study the impact of genetic factors that play an important role in an individual's vulnerability to alcohol abuse and dependence, we examined the genetic variations of the major neurotransmitter genes, including the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) TaqI A, B, and -141C insertion/deletion (Ins/Del) polymorphisms, the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR), and the gamma-aminobutyric acid A (GABA(A)) receptor beta(3) subunit gene (GABRbeta3), for 130 Mexican-American alcoholic men and 251 nonalcoholic control subjects (105 men and 146 women). The genotype frequency for the DRD2 -141C Ins/Del allele was significantly different between alcoholic and control subjects (P = .007). The frequency of the 5-HTTLPR short (S) allele was significantly higher in alcoholic individuals (61.5%) than in nonalcoholic control subjects (52.8%; P = .021). When smokers were excluded from both control and alcoholic groups, the association between the DRD2 -141C Ins allele, as well as between the 5-HTTLPR S allele, and alcoholism became significant at both genotypic and allelic levels. No positive association was found between alcoholism and the DRD2 TaqI A or B, or the GABRbeta3, genotype. Our findings indicate that the DRD2 -141C Ins allele and the 5-HTTLPR S allele are genetic risk factors for alcoholism in Mexican-Americans, and that smoking modulates the association between genetic risk factors and alcoholism.

Konishi T; Luo HR; Calvillo M; Mayo MS; Lin KM; Wan YJY. ADH1B1, ADH1C2, DRD2 (-141C Ins), and 5-HTTLPR are associated with alcoholism in Mexican American men living in Los Angeles. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 28(8): 1145-1152, 2004. (64 refs.)

Background: The aim of the present study was to use a candidate gene approach to identify the genetic risk factors for alcoholism in Mexican Americans residing in the Los Angeles area. The genes selected include alcohol metabolizing genes and neurotransmitter genes, which have been shown in the literature to be associated with alcoholism in other ethnic groups. Methods: Thirteen allelic variants from seven genes were evaluated for their role in alcoholism using alcoholic (n = 200) and nonalcoholic (n = 251) Mexican Americans. Those polymorphic sites include alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH1B, ADH1C), aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2), cytochrome P-450 2E1 (CYP2E1) TaqI, DraI, RsaI, dopamine D-2 receptor (DRD2) TaqI A, B, intron 6, exon 7, -141C Ins/Del, serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR), and GABA(A) receptor beta3 subunit (GABRbeta3). Results: The results demonstrate that Mexican Americans have extremely low allele frequency for both ALDH2*2 and ADH1B*2 and a relatively high frequency of ADH1C*2 and CyP2E1 c2 alleles. ADH1B*1, ADH1C*2, DRD2 (-141C Ins), and 5-HTTLPR were associated with alcoholism in Mexican Americans (p < 0.05). DRD2 Ins was associated with alcoholism in those alcoholics who carried the ADH1B*2 or ADH1C*1 protective alleles (p = 0.032 in genotype level and p = 0.015 in allele level). DRD2 TaqI A and B alleles were associated with early age of onset for drinking (p = 0.016 for TaqI A1 and p = 0.049 for TaqI B1 allele). Conclusions: Together, the data reveal unique genetic patterns in Mexican Americans that may be in part responsible for the heightened risk for alcoholism and alcohol-associated health problems in this population.

Kulis S; Marsiglia FF; Hurdle D. Gender identity, ethnicity, acculturation, and drug use: Exploring differences among adolescents in the Southwest. Journal of Community Psychology 31(2): 167-188, 2003. (52 refs.)

This article presents the findings of a survey completed by 1351 predominantly Mexican American middle school students residing in a large urban center in the U.S. Southwest. The study explores possible associations between drug use attitudes and behaviors and gender (biological sex), gender identity, ethnicity, and acculturation status. Based on the concepts of "machismo" and "marianismo" that have been used to describe Mexican populations, four dimensions of gender identity were measured: aggressive masculinity, assertive masculinity, affective femininity, and submissive femininity. In explaining a variety of indicators of drug use behaviors and anti-drug norms, gender alone had limited explanatory power, while gender identity-often regardless of gender - was, a better predictor. Aggressive masculinity was generally associated with higher risk of drug use, while the other three gender identity measures had selected protective effects. However, the impact of gender identity was strongly mediated by acculturation. Less acculturated Mexican American students reported lower aggressive masculinity scores than non-Latinos. Less acculturated Mexican American girls reported both the lowest aggressive masculinity scores and the highest submissive femininity scores. More acculturated Mexican American students, along with the less acculturated Mexican American boys, did not appear to be following a polarized approach to gender identity (machismo and marianismo) as was expected. The findings suggest that some aspects of culturally prescribed gender roles can have a protective effect against drug use behaviors and attitudes, possibly for both girls and boys.

Kulis SK; Marsiglia FF; Nagoshi JL. Gender roles, externalizing behaviors, and substance use among Mexican-American adolescents. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions 10(3): 283-307, 2010. (64 refs.)

A sample of 60 male and 91 female Mexican-American adolescents (age 13-18) were administered measures of positive (i.e., assertive masculinity, affective femininity) and negative (i.e., aggressive masculinity, submissive femininity) gender roles, internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors, peer substance use, and own substance use (alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana). Negative gender roles were significantly correlated with internalizing and externalizing problems for both boys and girls, with aggressive masculinity also predicting peer substance use for both genders. Assertive masculinity significantly predicted lower alcohol use in boys, and this effect was not mediated by internalizing problems, externalizing problems, or peer substance use. Negative gender roles significantly predicted higher alcohol use in girls, but this effect was almost completely mediated by internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and peer substance use. Results are discussed in terms of gender role socialization among Mexican Americans.

Lee JH; Ku JG; Kim K; Yang BH; Kim SH; Wiederhold BK et al. Experimental application of virtual reality for nicotine craving through cue exposure. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 6(3): 275-280, 2003. (10 refs.)

Research has shown that many smokers experience an increase in the desire to smoke when exposed to smoking-related cues. Cue exposure treatment (CET) refers to the manualized, repeated exposure to smoking-related cues, aimed at the reducing cue reactivity by extinction. In this study, we constructed a virtual reality system for evoking a desire of nicotine, which was based on the results of a Questionnaire of Nicotine-craving. And we investigated the effectiveness of the virtual reality system as compared to classical device (pictures). As a result, we reached the conclusion that virtual reality elicits more craving symptoms than the classical devices.

Leng A-S; Calvillo M; Konishi T; Guzman GD; Pineda E; Lin K-M. Characteristics and drinking patterns in alcohol abusing Mexican American men. Addictive Disorders and Their Treatment 3(1): 14-17, 2004. (13 refs.)

ntroduction: Alcoholism has become a prominent problem among Mexican Americans, but few studies have examined it using a structured diagnostic instrument. This study describes the demographics and drinking patterns of a heavy drinking group of Mexican American men by using the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism II (SSAGA-II). Methodology: Six hundred thirty subjects were screened. After screening, 201 male Mexican Americans with heavy alcohol consumption histories (more than 6 drinks per day for more than 5 years) were assessed. Subjects' demographic variables were collected and a portion of SSAGA-II was used to establish alcohol dependence criteria and drinking patterns. Results: The prevalence rate for DSM-IV alcohol dependence among the 201 heavy drinking male Mexican Americans was 91.5% (n = 184). Demographic characteristics showed that the average age of subjects was 39, with a majority of them being single, unemployed, born in Mexico, and having less than 12 years of education. They started drinking at a young age and reported being drunk early in the course. More than half drank only beer, and one third drank more than 12 drinks per day on average. The inability to control drinking and the physiological symptoms associated with alcohol consumption were clusters of dependence criteria most likely to be endorsed by our subjects. Discussion: We studied a cohort of heavy drinking Mexican American men and described their drinking patterns as well as their demographics. Our study was the first to use a structured instrument on Mexican Americans. Although our findings are not generalizable to all Mexican Americans, they provide us needed information in this area.

Luo HR; Hou F; Wu J; Zhang YP; Wan YJY. Evolution of the DRD2 gene haplotype and its association with alcoholism in Mexican Americans. Alcohol 36(2): 117-125, 2005. (48 refs.)

The human D2 dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) plays a central role in the neuromodulation of appetitive behaviors and is implicated in having a possible role in susceptibility to alcoholism. We genotyped an SNP in DRD2 Exon 8 in 251 nonalcoholic, unrelated, healthy controls and 200 alcoholic Mexican Americans. The DRD2 haplotypes were analyzed using the Exon 8 genotype in combination with five other SNP genotypes, which were obtained from our previous study. The ancestral origins of the DRD2 polymorphisms have been determined by sequencing the homologous region in other higher primates. Twenty DRD2 haplotypes, defined as H1 to H20 based on their frequency from high to low, were obtained in this major minority population. The ancestral haplotype "I-B2-G-C-G-A1" and two one-step mutation haplotypes were absent in our study population. The haplotype H1, "I-B1-T-C-A-A1", with the highest frequency in the population, is a three-step mutation from the ancestral form. The first five or eight major haplotypes make up 87% or 95% of the entire population, respectively. The prevalence of the haplotype H1+ (H1/H1 and H1/Hn genotypes) is significantly higher in alcoholics and alcoholic subgroups, including early onset drinkers and benders, than in their respective control groups. The Promoter ?141C allele is in linkage disequilibrium (LD) with five other loci in the nonalcoholic group, but not in the alcoholic group. All of the other five loci are in LD in both the alcoholic and control groups. The DRD2 TaqI B allele is in complete LD with the allele located in intron 6. Five SNPs, Promoter ?141C, TaqI B (or Intron 6), Exon 7, Exon 8, and TaqI A, are sufficient to define the DRD2 haplotypes in Mexican Americans. Our data indicate that the DRD2 haplotypes are associated with alcoholism in Mexican Americans.

Luo H-R; Konishi T; Tsuang J; Wan Y-JY. Comparison of alcohol drinking behaviors and associated problems between benders and nonbenders in Mexican Americans who drink excessively. Addictive Disorders and their Treatment 5(3): 121-127, 2006. (19 refs.)

OBJECTIVE: Bender drinking (defined as 2 or more days of sustained drinking) is common among Hispanic/Mexican Americans. However, no data are available on whether there are significant differences in alcohol-related behavioral and medical problems between benders and nonbenders, when both groups are heavy drinkers. To bridge this research gap, we investigated drinking behavior and alcohol-associated problems in Mexican American alcoholics using the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism (SSAGA-II). METHODS: Participants included 201 heavy drinking (?6 drinks/d) Mexican American men with 75.6% of them meeting criteria for bender drinking. Drinking behaviors, demographics, and alcohol-related problems were characterized in the 201 alcoholics, and then these variables were compared between benders and nonbenders. RESULTS: Demographically, benders were more likely to be single than nonbenders (P=0.001) but there were no other differences between the 2 groups. Regarding drinking patterns, benders exhibited distinct [P<0.001, odds ratios (ORs)=3.65 to 10.20] drinking behaviors to that of nonbenders, including thinking of drinking where it was prohibited, drinking regularly before age 20, and drinking nonbeverage alcohol such as mouthwash. Moreover, benders exhibited significantly (P<0.001, ORs=3.63 to 6.42) more drinking-related negative behaviors compared to nonbenders, such as forfeiting important things, putting oneself in dangerous situations, becoming less responsible, exhibiting problems at work or school, losing friendships, accidentally injuring oneself, hitting other people, as well as more alcohol-related medical and emotional problems (ORs=3.02 to 6.94), such as feeling depressed for longer than 24 hours, having trouble thinking for longer than 24 hours, hallucinations, and stomach disease. CONCLUSIONS: Among a group of excessive drinking Mexican American men, benders had more serious negative drinking-related behavioral and health problems than nonbenders. Thus, from a public health perspective, reducing the number of benders among heavy drinking Mexican Americans should be considered as an initial step to reduce alcohol-related problems. These data might be useful in developing strategies to reduce alcohol-related problems in Mexican Americans.

MacPherson L; Myers MG. Invariance study of an adolescent survey-based smoking-related cognitions scale: Examination across Hispanic and Caucasian groups. Preventive Medicine 39(5): 1026-1035, 2004. (63 refs.)

Background. Large-scale surveys frequently assess tobacco-related cognitions, however, few studies have examined the psychometric properties and cultural invariance of such measures. Methods. The present study examined the factor structure of a dichotomous 8-item tobacco-related beliefs scale administered as part of the state-wide California Tobacco Survey. It was expected that scale factor structure would be invariant across the non-Hispanic white (N = 1960) and English-speaking Mexican-Americans (N = 5 93), but would differ for Spanish-speaking Mexican-Americans (N = 455). Invariance was also examined across gender within each group. Results. A single factor solution was identified and confirmed within each group. Factorial invariance analyses revealed differences across the three groups as well as across gender among the Mexican-American groups. Conclusions. Findings underscore the importance of examining the psychometric properties of scales employed to assess tobacco-related cognitions across cultural and gender groups.

Marsiglia FF; Kulis S; Nieri T; Parsai M. God forbid! Substance use among religious and nonreligious youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 75(4): 585-598, 2005. (43 refs.)

Among a predominately Mexican and Mexican American sample of preadolescents, religiosity protected against lifetime alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use and recent alcohol and cigarette use when religious affiliation was controlled. When religiosity was controlled, however, adolescents with no religious affiliation and adolescents who were religiously affiliated reported similar substance use outcomes. Interaction effects demonstrated that the protective effect of greater religiosity operated more strongly in some religions than in others for selected outcomes. Overall, the impact of religiosity on reported drug use did not differ significantly for more and less acculturated Latino youth.

Martinez-Donate AP; Hovell F; Hofstetter CR; Gonzalez-Perez GJ; Adams MA; Kotay A. Correlates of home smoking bans among Mexican-Americans. American Journal of Health Promotion 21(4): 229-236, 2007. (35 refs.)

Purpose. This study examines the individual and environmental correlates of home smoking bans among a papulation-based sample of Mexican-Americans. Design. A telephone survey on tobacco use and home policies was conducted using stratified, random sampling of listed phone numbers. Setting. Surveys were completed by telephone in San Diego, California. Subjects. The sample consisted of San Diego adult residents of Mexican descent (N = 1,103). Measures. The interview included questions on home rules regarding smoking in the household and a number of potential correlates, based on the Behavioral Ecological Model (BEM). This model emphasizes the influence of family, social, and cultural factors on health behaviors. Results. Overall, 90.6% of all respondents reported a ban on smoking in the home. Multivariate analyses indicated that home bans on smoking are more likely among individuals that do not smoke, live with children, are more acculturated to U.S. society, report greater aversion to ETS, and/or report more social pressure against indoor smoking. In contrast, smoking bans are less likely among Mexican Americans who live with smokers. Conclusions. Individual and environmental factors play a protective role by increasing the likelihood of smoking bans in the home of Mexican-descent individuals. These factors should be considered for the design of interventions to sustain and promote the adoption of smoking bans in the home among this and other populations.

Medina C; Luna G. Suicide attempts among adolescent Mexican-American students enrolled in special education classes. Adolescence 41(162): 299-312, 2006. (41 refs.)

Suicide is the second leading cause of death among school-aged students between the ages of 15 and 19. There is an increasing frequency of suicide and other self-destructive behaviors among Mexican American youth and students in special education classrooms for emotional and behavioral disabilities. Recognizing Mexican American youth in special education classes as a separate risk group, this study (a) identifies factors that contribute to suicide, (b) reviews the signs and characteristics associated with these factors, (c) interviews Mexican American students in special education who have either exhibited various characteristics of suicidal thoughts and/or have attempted suicide, (d) explores effective prevention programs, and (e) provides suggestions for school personnel. Interviews with five adolescent Mexican American special education students support previous research findings that depression, substance abuse, social and interpersonal conflict, family distress, and school stress are primary characteristics related to suicidal minority youth.

Morgan-Lopez AA; Castro FG; Chassin L; MacKinnon DP. A mediated moderation model of cigarette use among Mexican American youth. (rapid communication). Addictive Behaviors 28(3): 583-589, 2003. (11 refs.)

The current study tested a model examining both the direct and mediated effects of Ethnic Cultural Norms (ECN) on cigarette use in a sample of Mexican American youth (ages 11-14; N=921). Contextual risk factors (peer smoking and family smoking) were included as potential moderators of this mediational relationship. A product of coefficient method to test the significance of the mediated effect [Evaluation Review 17 (1993) 144.] was adapted to assess the mediation of interaction effects. Results suggested that Tobacco Avoidance Self-Efficacy mediated the protective influence of ECN on cigarette use. However, as peer smoking increased, the influence of ECN on cigarette use diminished, though it remained a significant, protective influence on cigarette use. Results are discussed in terms of the potential synergy between ECN and social influence training in tobacco preventive intervention development among youth of Latin descent.

Nagoshi JL; Marsiglia FF; Parsai M; Castro FG. The moderating effects of ethnic identification on the relationship between parental monitoring and substance use in Mexican heritage adolescents in the southwest united states. Journal of Community Psychology 39(5): 520-533, 2011. (48 refs.)

The purpose of this study was to assess the combined effects of ethnic identification and perceived parental monitoring on the substance use of a sample of 162 male and 192 female Mexican heritage seventh grade adolescents. Parental monitoring predicted lower risk for substance use. An interaction of ethnic identification by parental monitoring was observed with parental monitoring exhibiting stronger effects in decreasing use of alcohol use among boys who scored low on ethnic identification. For girls, decreased substance use was predicted by stronger parental monitoring coupled with high ethnic identification. Results. are discussed in terms of how the youth's ethnic identification is a distinct process from acculturation, and how ethnic identification may operate as an added protective factor in conjunction with parental monitoring, as protective factors against adolescent substance abuse.

Nieri T; Kulis S; Keith VM; Hurdle D. Body image, acculturation, and substance abuse among boys and girls in the southwest. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 31(4): 617-639, 2005. (49 refs.)

This study explored body image as measured by perceptions of weight and appearance and its impact on adolescent drug use among predominately Mexican American middle school students in the southwest. Outcomes analyzed included lifetime and recent alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use and antidrug norms. Disliking one's looks was more of a risk factor for boys, whereas negative weight perceptions were more of a risk factor for girls. Relative to more acculturated ( English-dominant) Latinos (N = 903), non-Latino Whites (N = 121), and other non-Latino youth (N = 107), less acculturated (Spanish-dominant) Latino youth (N = 212) reported the poorest body image. However, more acculturated Latino youth with poor body image had the greatest risk of substance use. More acculturated Latino boys who disliked their looks reported relatively greater amounts of recent alcohol use, and those who rated their bodies as too thin reported higher lifetime cigarette use, a greater amount and frequency of recent cigarette use, and weaker antidrug norms. More acculturated Latina girls who thought they were too fat reported a greater amount and frequency of recent cigarette use. These findings suggest that low levels of acculturation may protect some Latino youth with poor body image from coping via substance use. In addition, they suggest that poor body image among some Latinos may result less from adoption of American thinness ideals but rather from attitudes and behaviors that devalue the characteristics of Latino appearance.

Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. The TEDS Report: Differences in Substance Abuse Treatment Admissions between Mexican-American Males and Females. (May 5, 2010). Rockville MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, 2010. (5 refs.)

As the proportion of racial/ethnic minority groups within the United States continues to increase, it is important that public health professionals understand the specific characteristics and substance abuse behaviors of these populations. Hispanics not only account for almost 15% of the nation's population, but also comprise 15% of all substance abuse treatment admissions. Of particular interest are Hispanics of Mexican origin, who represent the majority (64.0%) of the nation's Hispanic population. Using data from TEDS for 2007, this report focuses on Hispanic substance abuse treatment admissions of Mexican origin (hereafter referred to as "Mexican") and highlights gender differences within this population. Among Mexican admissions, males reported alcohol as their primary substance of abuse more often than other substances, and females most commonly reported methamphetamine. The majority of Mexican admissions reported that they first used their primary substance of abuse before the age of 18 (60.7% for males and 56.1% for females); overall, 7.4% reported using their first substance before the age of 12. About three quarters of Mexican admissions had no health insurance (78.8% for males and 71.5% for females), a substantially higher proportion than non-Mexican admissions (62.6% for males and 50.9% for females).

Public Domain

Osborne C; Manning WD; Smock PJ. Married and cohabiting parents' relationship stability: A focus on race and ethnicity. Journal of Marriage and the Family 69(5): 1345-1366, 2007. (69 refs.)

We draw on three waves of the Fragile Families Study (N = 2,249) to examine family stability among a recent birth cohort of children. We find that children born to cohabiting versus married parents have over five times the risk of experiencing their parents' separation. This difference in union stability is greatest for White children, as compared with Black or Mexican American children. For White children, differences in parents' education levels, paternal substance abuse, and prior marriage and children account for the higher instability faced by those born to cohabiting parents, whereas differences in union stability are not fully explained among Black and Mexican American children. These findings have implications for policies aimed at promoting family stability and reducing inequality.

Pena JM; Koss-Chioino JD; Bay C. Searching for universals: Preliminary evidence for the validity of substance abuse subtypes in a sample of Mexican American youths. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 29(2): 445-461, 2003. (18 refs.)

Recent studies of substance abuse typologies indicate that multivariate models originally developed for identifying subtypes of alcoholics are valid among users of other substances, including heroin, cocaine, and marijuana. If substance abuse typologies are universal across cultures, then controlling for subtype may prove to be an effective research strategy in studies attempting to distinguish the separate and specific contribution of culturally-related factors to risk for substance use and to treatment response. This article presents data that replicate the Type A-Type B distinction developed by Babor et al., in a sample of Hispanic youths with substance use problems. The proportions of the 131 adolescents meeting threshold diagnostic criteria for a substance use problem were alcohol, 43%; cannabis, 39%; amphetamines, 7%; cocaine, 4%; and inhalants, 2%. Cluster analysis identified two groups, Cluster 1 and Cluster 2, corresponding to Babor et al.'s Type A-Type B typology. Compared to Cluster 1 (Type A), Cluster 2 (Type B) substance users reported significantly more multiple drug use, more frequent use of tobacco, more frequent use of other drugs, as well as more psychiatric symptoms, conduct problems, and problems related to impulse control. Although significant differences were not found on measures of biological family history, age of first use, novelty seeking, and typical use of alcohol, differences in each of these areas were in the direction that the typology would predict with Cluster 2 (Type B).

Ramirez AG; Suarez L; Chalela P; Talavera GA; Marti J; Trapido EJ et al. Cancer risk factors among men of diverse Hispanic or Latino origins. Preventive Medicine 39(2): 263-269, 2004. (26 refs.)

Background. Personal health behaviors play a fundamental role in premature cancer morbidity and mortality. However, routine risk factor data on Latino groups are lacking. Knowledge of cancer risk prevalence by ethnoregional groups is particularly important for development of effective prevention and control strategies. Methods. Using the diverse populations and sites involved in the National Hispanic Leadership Initiative on Cancer (NHLIC): En Accion, this paper examines prevalence of six cancer risk factors among Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, and Central American adult males in eight U.S. cities. Data were collected through two telephone surveys. The 1993-1994 sample consisted of 4170 males (2041 <40 years and 2120 greater than or equal to 40 years). The 1997-1998 sample consisted of 4486 males (2286 <40 years and 2200 greater than or equal to 40 years). Results. Clear differences exist in risk factor prevalence among Latino subgroups. Overall, riskiest behaviors were found among Mexican American men in Texas, more of whom smoked, engaged in acute alcohol drinking, and had poorer diets and higher obesity levels than other Latino men. Conclusions. Root causes of these ethnoregional differences are likely due to both economic and cultural factors. Cancer prevention and control strategies and programs should be tailored to address specific needs of each population group.

Rivera-Hidalgo F; Shulman JD; Beach MM. The association of tobacco and other factors with recurrent aphthous stomatitis in an US adult population. Oral Diseases 10(6): 335-345, 2004. (69 refs.)

OBJECTIVE: To determine point and annual prevalence of recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS). SETTING: Reported prevalence of RAS in textbooks and much of the literature varies according to study location, patient selection and whether point prevalence (presence of lesions at examination) or period prevalence (history of lesions during a specified period) is reported. Many studies are based on non-probability samples and this may contribute to significant variation in reported prevalence and factors presumed to be associated with RAS. METHODS: We analyzed data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994, a large United States probability sample, for RAS and covariates suggested in the literature using bivariate and multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: Oral mucosal examinations were performed on 17 235 adults 17 years and older. Of these, 146 (0.89%) had at least one clinically apparent aphthous lesion. For annual (reported) prevalence, Whites (20.87%) and Mexican-Americans (12.88%) had several fold higher prevalence of RAS than Blacks (4.96%). Adults younger than 40 years of age had almost twice the prevalence (22.54%) of those older than 40 years (13.42%). CONCLUSION: Annual prevalence was significantly higher in whites and Mexican-Americans (compared with blacks), individuals 17-39 years of age, cigarette non-smokers, and those with recurrent herpes labialis history; while it was lower in males. Point prevalence was significantly higher in whites, Mexican-American, individuals 17-39 years of age, cigarette non-smokers, and males.

Russo D; Purohit V; Foudin L; Salin M. Workshop on alcohol use and health disparities 2002: A call to arms. (editorial). Alcohol 32(1): 37-43, 2004. (14 refs.)

The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) sponsored a "Workshop on Alcohol Use and Health Disparities 2002: A Call to Arms," on December 5, 2002, in Bethesda, Maryland, USA. This workshop was part of the NIAAA/NIH comprehensive strategic plan to reduce, and ultimately eliminate, health disparities. Eleven topics were addressed: (1) biomedical risk factors that may contribute to disparities in the toxic effects of alcohol; (2) alcohol and gene-environment interactions that affect the health of diverse groups; (3) alcohol pharmacogenetics in Mexican-Americans; (4) determinants of risk for alcoholism in minority populations; (5) consideration of population groups in linkage-disequilibrium studies to identify genes associated with alcohol dependence: (6) interaction between alcohol dependence and African-American ethnicity in disordered sleep, nocturnal cytokines, and immunity: (7) disparities of brain functional reserve capacity affecting brain morbidity related to substance abuse; (8) alcohol and pregnancy disparities; (9) role of alcohol in cancer risk disparities; (10) ethnic diversity in alcoholic cardiomyopathy; and (11) postmenopausal health disparities. On the basis of these presentations, seven conclusions emerged: (1) Genetic variations in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes exist in various populations. (2) These enzymes play a role in the variation in health effect outcomes seen in different populations, owing to alcohol consumption. (3) Differences between and among population groups can be critically important for the design and interpretation of studies in genetics. These include differences in expression of phenotype, in locus heterogeneity, in risk alleles, and in population structure. (4) Incidence rates for fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders are greater in African-Americans and Native-Americans than in Caucasians. Genetic polymorphisms, nutrition, and other factors may account for these differences. (5) The highest mortality rate for cirrhosis has been found in white Hispanic men. (6) Mexican-Americans have a low frequency of the protective alleles ADH1B*2 and ALDH2*2 and a relatively high frequency of CYP2E1 c2, which is associated with early onset alcoholism. (7) The incidence rate for cancer is greater for African-Americans than for Caucasians, and part of the higher risk may be attributed to heavier drinking.

Shorkey C; Windsor LC; Spence R. Assessing culturally competent chemical dependence treatment services for Mexican Americans. Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research 36(1): 61-74, 2009. (35 refs.)

Mexican Americans struggling with chemical dependence are greatly underserved. Barriers to treatment include language, lack of culturally relevant services, lack of trust in programs, uninviting environments, and limited use and linkage with cultural resources in the community. This project aimed to develop a tool for assessing and planning culturally competent/relevant chemical dependence treatment services for Mexican Americans. Focus groups were conducted with experts in Mexican-American culture and chemical dependence from six substance abuse programs serving adult and adolescent Mexican Americans and their families. Sixty-two statements were developed describing characteristics of culturally competent/relevant organizations. Concept mapping was used to produce a conceptual map displaying dimensions of culturally competent/relevant organizations and Cronbach's alpha was calculated to assess the internal consistency of each dimension. Analysis resulted in seven reliable subscales: Spanish language (alpha = 0.84), counselor characteristics (alpha = 0.82), environment (alpha = 0.88), family (alpha = 0.84), linkage (alpha = 0.92), community (alpha = 0.86), and culture (alpha = 0.89). The resulting instrument based on these items and dimensions enable agencies to evaluate culturally competent/relevant services, set goals, and identify resources needed to implement desired services for both individual organizations and networks of regional services.

Stewart SH; Connors GJ; Hutson A. Ethnicity and gamma-glutamyltransferase in men and women with alcohol use disorders. Alcohol and Alcoholism 42(1): 24-27, 2007. (22 refs.)

Aims: This study evaluated the associations of gender and ethnicity with GGT in a large sample of patients with DSM-IV alcohol abuse or dependence, as well as modification of alcohol's effects on GGT by gender and ethnicity. Methods: Subjects included 1691 African American, Mexican American, and non-Hispanic white individuals with DSM-IV alcohol dependence or abuse who participated in an alcoholism treatment trial. Detailed information on alcohol use was collected and GGT measured at baseline and at 3, 9, and 15 months post-baseline. Results: Changes in GGT occurring with changes in alcohol consumption were similar regardless of ethnicity. Although alcohol-associated changes were similar in these ethnic groups, African Americans had the highest average GGT at any given level of alcohol use. This ethnic pattern held for both sexes, with females having lower levels within each ethnic group. Drinking frequency had a slightly decreased association with GGT in females relative to males, but this effect was clinically unimportant. Conclusions: Gender and ethnic-specific cutoffs may be useful when screening for chronic heavy drinking, but the absolute increase in GGT occurring with relapse will be similar regardless of gender or ethnicity.

Stimpson JP; Masel MC; Rudkin L; Peek MK. Shared health behaviors among older Mexican American spouses. American Journal of Health Behavior 30(5): 495-502, 2006. (33 refs.)

Objective: To assess the association of health behaviors among husbands and wives. Methods: Cohort study of 553 Mexican American couples aged 65 years or older from the Hispanic Established Populations for the Epidemiologyogic Studies of the Elderly (HEPESE). Multivariate regression analyses test the association of body mass index, smoking, and alcohol consumption among husbands and wives. Results: Body mass index is positively associated among couples. Risk of smoking or drinking was higher if the partner had ever smoked or drank alcohol. Conclusion: Health behaviors are associated among older Mexican American couples. Intervention efforts should be directed at both spouses.

Strunina L; Edwards EM; Godette DC; Heerene T. Country of origin, age of drinking onset, and drinking patterns among Mexican American young adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 91(2/3): 134-140, 2007. (57 refs.)

This study examines relationships between country of origin, age of drinking onset, and adverse drinking outcomes among young adult Mexican Americans in the 2001-2002 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Logistic regression models estimate associations between age of drinking onset, age of onset in relation to age at immigration, and adverse drinking outcomes, controlling for sex, age, employment, education, marital status, and income. Adjusted analyses indicate the odds of adverse drinking outcomes decreased as age of drinking onset increased. Mexican Americans who initiated drinking in Mexico had significantly lower odds of current or lifetime harmful drinking than U.S. born but the odds were not significantly different between foreign-born Mexican Americans who initiated drinking in the U.S. and U.S. born. Irrespective of whether drinking onset was in Mexico or the U.S., foreign-born Mexican Americans had lower odds of alcohol abuse than U.S. born. However, odds of dependence were not significantly different between foreign-born and U.S.-born Mexican Americans. While findings suggest that being foreign born may be protective, further research on social and cultural factors impacting drinking onset and related outcomes among young Mexican Americans may help inform prevention efforts.

Torres LR; Kaplan C; Valdez A. Health consequences of long-term injection heroin use among aging Mexican American men. Journal of Aging and Health 23(6): 912-932, 2011. (67 refs.)

Objectives: Research on the health consequences of long-term injection drug use (IDU) is limited. This article examines these consequences among aging, male Mexican American injecting heroin users. Concern for this group is crucial, given its health disparities and the association of IDU with disease transmission. Method: Aging, male Mexican American IDUs (N = 227) were recruited through intensive outreach. Participants self-reported health status, medical and substance use history, and completed behavioral and psychometric health scales. Results: are compared to Hispanic national samples. Results: Participants had significantly poorer self-rated health and negative health conditions. Selected medical conditions not associated with the heroin-use lifestyle (i.e., hypertension, diabetes, arthritis) were lower relative to the comparison samples. Discussion: This population has a complex profile of health consequences linked to a heroin-using lifestyle. The study concludes that routine screening of infectious diseases and medical and behavioral conditions among aging substance using populations may contribute to reducing Hispanic health disparities.

Valdez A. Mexican American youth and adult prison gangs in a changing heroin market. Journal of Drug Issues 35(4): 843-867, 2005. (49 refs.)

This article focuses on the interaction between the larger community's drug markets and youth and adult prison gangs, and the process that leads to specific adverse consequences both to the youth gangs as organizations, and to individual members. Described is the emergence of a restructured heroin market dominated by an adult prison gang. A major consequence of this was the increasing use of heroin among Mexican American gang members and their transformation from autonomous youth gangs to extensions of the adult prison gangs or their demise. Data was collected from 160 members of 26 Mexican American youth gangs and key informants in San Antonio. Findings focus on organizational rules, drug market transformations, consequences on members, and the impact of heroin on the gang's organization. Discussed is how the dominance of prison gangs is related to the increased incarceration and recidivism rates of Mexican Americans and declining economic opportunities for urban minorities.

Valdez A; Kaplan C. Conditions that increase drug market involvement: The invitational edge and the case of Mexicans in South Texas. Journal of Drug Issues 37(4): 893-918, 2007. (65 refs.)

Research on drug trafficking has not been able to discern the exact nature of illegal drug markets and the relationship between their individual and group participants. This article delineates the role of Mexican immigrants and Mexican-American participants involved in the stratified drug market of South Texas. This article synthesizes ethnographic materials drawn from two previous National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) studies in order identify the different types of drug distribution behaviors that occur within the groups, the differentiated roles of individuals, the organizational framework, and most significantly, the processes that link market participants to others outside of the drug market. This illegal behavior can be interpreted as an adaptive mechanism that is a direct response to the marginal economic status imposed by macro socio-economical background factors. As well we conclude that the specific foreground factors of the opportunities offered by the context, culture, and proximity of the U.S./Mexico border and invitational edges explain this behavior. There are both parallels and particular differences between the South Texas case and the structuring and functioning of informal legal and illegal markets that are characteristic of other economically disadvantaged communities.

Valdez A; Kaplan CD; Cepeda A. The drugs-violence nexus among Mexican-American gang members. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 38(2): 109-121, 2006. (74 refs.)

This study examines hypotheses and builds models to help clarify the causal connections between drugs and violence outcomes among Mexican-American male gang members. The study uses cross-sectional data of 160 male gang members sampled from 26 gangs in a Southwestern city. A life-history/intensive interview using closed and open-ended questions and a violence risk psychometric test (PFAV) also employed 10 scenario questions to elicit self-produced accounts of the participant's last fight. Gang member participant's ages ranged from 14 to 25 years with a mean age of 18.5 years. The study concludes that drug use interacts with an individual gang member's risk for violence to affect violent behavior outcomes. Furthermore, an important situational variable explaining violent outcomes among respondents scoring high on the violence risk measure was whether the rival was using drugs that resulted in high intoxicatiion levels. The study concludes that drugs have a modulating and mediating influence on violence that is conditioned by situational and individual level variables among members of these adolescent street gangs.

Valdez A; Sifaneck SJ. "Getting high and getting by": Dimensions of drug selling behaviors among American Mexican gang members in South Texas. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 41(1): 82-105, 2004. (53 refs.)

This article discerns the role that Mexican American gang members play in drug markets, and the relationship between gang members' drug use and drug selling in South Texas. A four-part typology based on the two dimensions of gang type and gang member emerged from this qualitative analysis of 160 male gang members: Homeboys, Hustlers, Slangers, and Ballers. Major findings include the following: (1) many gang members are user/sellers and are not profit-oriented dealers, (2) gangs commonly do extend "protection" to drug-selling members, and (3) proximity to Mexican drug markets, adult prison gangs, and criminal family members may play important roles in whether these gang members have access and the profit potential to actually deal drugs. This research contributes to our complex intersections between gangs, drug using, and drug selling.

Vega WA; Sribney W. Parental risk factors and social assimilation in alcohol dependence of Mexican Americans. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 64(2): 167-175, 2003. (42 refs.)

Objective: This study examines the reciprocal relationship of social assimilation and four parental behavioral risk factors in the intergenerational development of alcohol abuse or dependence (AAD) among adults of Mexican origin in the United States. Whereas many studies have shown U.S. nativity and English language use are markers for enhanced risk of AAD among Mexican Americans, such studies have not examined the extent to which predisposing biobehavioral factors are conditioned by social assimilation in the United States. Method: Language use patterns as a proxy of cultural assimilation and length of time in the US. as a proxy for social assimilation were used to compare the distribution of parental behavioral factors (alcohol, drug abuse, depression and anxiety) and the influence of these factors on AAD onset in adult children of Mexican immigrants. Data were obtained from an epidemiologic field survey in Central California of 3,012 Mexican origin adults. Results: Complex effects structured by gender were found: parental behavioral risk factors predicted AAD onset; Mexican American adults born in the U.S. were much more likely than were immigrants to report parents with behavioral risk factors; women were more susceptible to the effects of parent risk factors in the context of social and cultural assimilation. Women required more total risk factor exposure, including parent risk factors, for AAD onset. Conclusions: Reciprocal influences of parent risk factors on assimilation were found, suggesting that parental behavioral factor effects on AAD in adult children of Mexican Americans are subordinate to social and cultural assimilation.

Vega WA; Sribney WM; Achara-Abrahams I. Co-occurring alcohol, drug, and other psychiatric disorders among Mexican-origin people in the United States. American Journal of Public Health 93(7): 1057-1064, 2003. (45 refs.)

We examined co-occurrence of (comorbid) alcohol, drug, and non-substance use psychiatric disorders in a population sample of Mexican-origin adults from rural and urban areas of central California. Co-occurring lifetime rates of alcohol or other drug disorders with non-substance use psychiatric disorders, or both, were 8.3% for men and 5.5% for women and were 12.3% for the US born and 3.5% for immigrants. Alcohol abuse or dependence with co-occurring psychiatric disorders is a primary disorder among Mexican-origin adult males (7.5% lifetime prevalence). US-born men and women are almost equally likely to have co-occurring disorders involving substances. Comorbidity is expected to increase in the Mexican-origin population owing to acculturation effects of both sexes.

Xu XH; Cook RL; Ilacqua VA; Kan HD; Talbott EO. Racial differences in the effects of postnatal environmental tobacco smoke on neurodevelopment. Pediatrics 126(4): 705-711, 2010. (38 refs.)

OBJECTIVES: We used the 2001-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to examine the association between postnatal environmental tobacco smoke exposure, measured as serum cotinine levels, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among children 4 to 15 years of age. We further investigated the interactions of race and serum cotinine levels with ADHD. METHODS: Logistic regression models were used to evaluate associations. RESULTS: This study found that the prevalence of ADHD increased as blood cotinine levels increased. The effects of blood cotinine levels on ADHD differed according to race. Compared with children of the same racial group with the lowest blood cotinine levels, the odds ratios were 2.72 (95% confidence interval: 1.25-5.93) for Mexican American children and 5.32 (95% confidence interval: 1.55-18.3) for children in other racial groups with the highest blood cotinine levels, with controlling for the effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy. However, no significant associations between blood cotinine levels and ADHD were observed among non-Hispanic white or non-Hispanic black children. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study underscore the possibility of racial disparities in the effects of environmental tobacco smoke on behavioral problems in children. These findings warrant further investigation.

Yang M; Tsuang J; Wan YJY. A haplotype analysis of CYP2E1 polymorphisms in relation to alcoholic phenotypes in Mexican Americans. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 31(12): 1991-2000, 2007. (74 refs.)

Background: Studies regarding the association between the 4 polymorphisms of CYP2E1 (CYP2E1*1D, *5B, *6, and *1B) and alcoholism are inconsistent and inconclusive. The purpose of the present study was to clarify previously discordant studies by haplotype analysis in the Mexican American population. Methods: The 4 polymorphisms of CYP2E1 were studied in 334 alcoholics and 365 controls. Genotype, allele, and haplotype frequency comparisons between alcoholics and controls were assessed. Patterns of linkage disequilibrium (LD) at CYP2E1 were determined. Reconstructed haplotypes were tested for associations with clinical phenotypes (age onset of drinking, Maxdrinks, and smoking status). Results No significant associations between the 4 polymorphisms of CYP2E1 and alcoholism were revealed by single allele tests. High LD was found between the CYP2E1 c2 and C alleles in Mexican Americans. Eleven haplotypes were present in the 699 participants. The 6 main haplotypes with frequencies higher than 1% made up 97% of the total halpotypes. The frequency of subjects carrying H6 (1C-c2-C-A2) was significantly higher in alcoholics than in controls (p = 0.0001). In contrast, the frequencies of H7 (1C-c2-C-A1) and H10 (1C-c2-D-A1) were significantly lower in alcoholics than in controls (p = 0.0072 for H7 and p = 0.0407 for H10). The frequency of H6 was significantly higher in alcoholics who had late onset of drinking than in nonalcoholic controls. Furthermore, the frequencies of H6 haplotype were also consistently higher in groups who had high number of maximum drinks (9 to 32 drinks) than in controls. When smokers are excluded, the frequencies of H6, H7, and H9 (1C-c2-D-A2) showed statistically significant differences between alcoholics and controls (p < 0.05). Moreover, the association between H6 and alcoholism become more robust when smokers are excluded. Furthermore, the frequency of H1 (1C-c1-D-A2) in alcoholic-smokers was much higher than in alcoholic-nonsmokers (p = 0.0028). In contrast, alcoholic-smokers carried less H2 (1C-c1-D-A1) in comparison with alcoholic-nonsmokers (p = 0.0417). The H3 (1D-c2-C-A2) frequency in alcoholic-smokers was much lower than in alcoholic-nonsmokers (p = 0.0042) and control-smokers (p = 0.0363). Conclusion Our data demonstrate that carrying haplotype H6 might enhance susceptibility to developing alcoholism, but possessing the H7 or H10 haplotype appears to decrease this susceptibility. The H6, H7, and H9 haplotypes may play certain roles in different clinical phenotypes in Mexican American alcoholics. In addition, our data suggest that the H1, H2, and H3 haplotypes are associated with alcohol drinking and smoking. These results support that haplotype analysis is much more informative than single allele analysis. Our findings clearly indicate the importance of H6 haplotype in alcohol drinking in Mexican Americans.

Zamboanga BL; Raffaelli M; Horton NJ. Acculturation status and heavy alcohol use among Mexican American college students: Investigating the moderating role of gender. Addictive Behaviors 31(12): 2188-2198, 2006. (31 refs.)

We examined whether gender moderates the association between acculturation and heavy alcohol use. The sample consisted of 126 Mexican American college students (Mean age = 24.7 years; 57% female) who completed self-report measures of heavy alcohol use, acculturation status (global acculturation and ethnic identity), and relevant control variables (age, peer alcohol use). Multivariable regression revealed that higher levels of ethnic identity were associated with greater frequency of heavy alcohol among men. Conversely, neither measure of acculturation was associated with heavy alcohol use among women. These findings suggest that interventions for Latino/a students should consider the role of culturally relevant variables in heavy alcohol use, particularly for men. They also have implications regarding how acculturation is operationalized in alcohol studies, and suggest directions for future research.

CORK Bibliography: Mexican-Americans

66 citations. January 2003 to present

Prepared: March 2012

Alvarez J; Olson BD; Jason LA; Davis MI; Ferrari JR. Heterogeneity among Latinas and Latinos entering substance abuse treatment: Findings from a national database. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 26(4): 277-284, 2004. (59 refs.)

Barnett NP; Monti PM; Cherpitel C; Bendtsen P; Borges G; Colby SM et al. Identification and brief treatment of alcohol problems with medical patients: An international perspective. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 27(2): 262-270, 2003. (51 refs.)

Barrera M; Hageman DN; Gonzales NA. Revisiting Hispanic adolescents' resilience to the effects of parental problem drinking and life stress. American Journal of Community Psychology 34(1/2): 83-94, 2004. (40 refs.)

Benowitz NL; Bernert JT; Caraballo RS; Holiday DB; Wang JT. Optimal serum cotinine levels for distinguishing cigarette smokers and nonsmokers within different racial/ethnic groups in the United States between 1999 and 2004. American Journal of Epidemiology 169(2): 236-248, 2009. (19 refs.)

Blume AW; Orona JA; Perez S; Villanueva MR. Alcohol expectancies significantly predicted consequences at three month follow-up among Mexican-American college students. (meeting abstract). Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 28(5 Supplement): 101A-101A, 2004. (2 refs.)

Borges G; Medina-Mora ME; Lown A; Ye Y; Robertson MJ; Cherpitel C et al. Alcohol use disorders in national samples of Mexcicans and Mexican-Americans: The Mexican National Addiction Survey and the US National Alcohol Survey. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 28(3): 425-449, 2006. (33 refs.)

Bray JH; Adams GJ; Getz JG; McQueen A. Individuation, peers, and adolescent alcohol use: A latent growth analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71(3): 553-564, 2003. (81 refs.)

Ceballos NA; Wiese B; Hovland J. Gender, body image, and attitudes about tobacco in the United States-Mexico border region: Implications for individualized prevention and treatment efforts for adolescents and emerging adults. Journal of Addictions Nursing 20(2): 66-70, 2009. (20 refs.)

Cepeda A; Valdez A. Risk behaviors among young Mexican American gang-associated females: Sexual relations, partying, substance use, and crime. Journal of Adolescent Research 18(1): 90-106, 2003. (45 refs.)

Chakraborty BM; Mueller WH; Reeves R; Poston WSC; Holscher DM; Quill B; Hanis CL; Foreyt JP. Migration history, health behaviors, and cardiovascular disease risk factors in overweight Mexican-American women. Ethnicity & Disease 13(1): 94-108, 2003. (48 refs.)

Chalela P; Velez LF; Ramirez AG. Social influences, and attitudes and beliefs associated with smoking among border Latino youth. Journal of School Health 77(4): 187-195, 2007. (45 refs.)

Cherpitel CJ; Bond J. DUI recidivism: A comparison of Mexican Americans and whites in a northern California county. (rapid communication). Addictive Behaviors 28(5): 963-969, 2003. (13 refs.)

Cherpitel CJ; Robertson M; Ye Y; Borges G; Bautista CF; Lown A et al. Comorbidity for alcohol use disorders and drug use in Mexican-origin groups: Comparison of data from national alcohol surveys in the U.S. and Mexico. Substance Use & Misuse 42(11): 1685-1703, 2007. (53 refs.)

Du YL; Nie YQ; Li YY; Wan YJY. The association between the SLC6A3 VNTR 9-repeat allele and alcoholism: A meta-analysis. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 35(9): 1625-1634, 2011. (52 refs.)

Du YL; Yang M; Yeh HW; Wan YJY. The association of exon 3 VNTR polymorphism of the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene with alcoholism in Mexican Americans. Psychiatry Research 177(3): 358-360, 2010. (11 refs.)

Du YL; Nie YQ; Li YY; Wan YJY. The association between the SLC6A3 VNTR 9-repeat allele and alcoholism: A meta-analysis. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 35(9): 1625-1634, 2011. (52 refs.)

Ehlers CL; Gilder DA; Criado JR; Caetano R. Sleep quality and alcohol-use disorders in a select population of young-adult Mexican Americans. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 71(6): 879-884, 2010. (57 refs.)

Elek E; Miller-Day M; Hecht ML. Influences of personal, injunctive, and descriptive norms on early adolescent substance use. Journal of Drug Issues 36(1): 147-171, 2006. (67 refs.)

Fisher DG; Reynolds GL; Moreno-Branson CM; Jaffe A; Wood MM; Klahn JA et al. Drug treatment needs of Hispanic drug users in Long Beach, California. Journal of Drug Issues 34(4): 879-894, 2004. (49 refs.)

Garcia JIR; Manongdo JA; Cruz-Santiago M. The family as mediator of the impact of parent youth acculturation/enculturation and inner-city stressors on Mexican American youth substance use. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 16(3): 404-412, 2010. (57 refs.)

Guilamo-Ramos V; Jaccard J; Johansson M; Turrisi R. Binge drinking among Latino youth: Role of acculturation-related variables. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 18(2): 135-142, 2004. (33 refs.)

Gutierres SE; Barr A. The relationship between attitudes toward pregnancy and contraception use among drug users. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 24(1): 19-29, 2003. (80 refs.)

Hecht ML; Graham JW; Elek E. The Drug Resistance Strategies intervention: Program effects on substance use. Health Education 20(3): 267-276, 2006. (43 refs.)

Hecht ML; Graham JW; Elek E. The Drug Resistance Strategies intervention: Program effects on substance use. Health Education 20(3): 267-276, 2006. (43 refs.)

Hernandez DV; Skewes MC; Resor MR; Villanueva MR; Hanson BS; Blume AW. A pilot test of an alcohol skills training programme for Mexican-American college students. International Journal of Drug Policy 17(4, Special Issue): 320-328, 2006. (50 refs.)

Hodge DR; Marsiglia FF; Nieri T. Religion and substance use among youths of Mexican heritage: A social capital perspective. Social Work Research 35(3): 137-146, 2011. (50 refs.)

Jimenez-Castro L; Hare E; Medina R; Raventos H; Nicolini H; Mendoza R et al. Substance use disorder comorbidity with schizophrenia in families of Mexican and Central American Ancestry. Schizophrenia Research 120(1-3): 87-94, 2010. (46 refs.)

Kam JA; Matsunaga M; Hecht ML; Ndiaye K. Extending the theory of planned behavior to predict alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana use among youth of Mexican heritage. Prevention Science 10(1): 41-53, 2009. (67 refs.)

Kelly K; Comello MLG; Stanley LR; Gonzalez GR. The power of theme and language in multi-cultural communities: Which tobacco prevention messages are most persuasive to Mexican-American youth? Journal of Advertising Research 50(3): 265-278, 2010. (62 refs.)

Konishi T; Calvillo M; Leng AS; Feng J; Lee T; Lee H et al. ADH3*2 and CYP2E1 c2 alleles increase the risk of alcoholism in Mexican American men. Experimental and Molecular Pathology 74(2): 183-189, 2003. (44 refs.)

Konishi T; Calvillo M; Leng AS; Lin KM; Wan YJY. Polymorphisms of the dopamine D-2 receptor, serotonin transporter, and GABA(A) receptor beta(3) subunit genes and alcoholism in Mexican-Americans. Alcohol 32(1): 45-52, 2004. (70 refs.)

Konishi T; Luo HR; Calvillo M; Mayo MS; Lin KM; Wan YJY. ADH1B*1, ADH1C*2, DRD2 (-141C Ins), and 5-HTTLPR are associated with alcoholism in Mexican American men living in Los Angeles. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 28(8): 1145-1152, 2004. (64 refs.)

Kulis S; Marsiglia FF; Hurdle D. Gender identity, ethnicity, acculturation, and drug use: Exploring differences among adolescents in the Southwest. Journal of Community Psychology 31(2): 167-188, 2003. (52 refs.)

Kulis SK; Marsiglia FF; Nagoshi JL. Gender roles, externalizing behaviors, and substance use among Mexican-American adolescents. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions 10(3): 283-307, 2010. (64 refs.)

Lee JH; Ku JG; Kim K; Yang BH; Kim SH; Wiederhold BK et al. Experimental application of virtual reality for nicotine craving through cue exposure. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 6(3): 275-280, 2003. (10 refs.)

Leng A-S; Calvillo M; Konishi T; Guzman GD; Pineda E; Lin K-M. Characteristics and drinking patterns in alcohol abusing Mexican American men. Addictive Disorders and Their Treatment 3(1): 14-17, 2004. (13 refs.)

Luo HR; Hou F; Wu J; Zhang YP; Wan YJY. Evolution of the DRD2 gene haplotype and its association with alcoholism in Mexican Americans. Alcohol 36(2): 117-125, 2005. (48 refs.)

Luo H-R; Konishi T; Tsuang J; Wan Y-JY. Comparison of alcohol drinking behaviors and associated problems between benders and nonbenders in Mexican Americans who drink excessively. Addictive Disorders and their Treatment 5(3): 121-127, 2006. (19 refs.)

MacPherson L; Myers MG. Invariance study of an adolescent survey-based smoking-related cognitions scale: Examination across Hispanic and Caucasian groups. Preventive Medicine 39(5): 1026-1035, 2004. (63 refs.)

Marsiglia FF; Kulis S; Nieri T; Parsai M. God forbid! Substance use among religious and nonreligious youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 75(4): 585-598, 2005. (43 refs.)

Martinez-Donate AP; Hovell F; Hofstetter CR; Gonzalez-Perez GJ; Adams MA; Kotay A. Correlates of home smoking bans among Mexican-Americans. American Journal of Health Promotion 21(4): 229-236, 2007. (35 refs.)

Medina C; Luna G. Suicide attempts among adolescent Mexican-American students enrolled in special education classes. Adolescence 41(162): 299-312, 2006. (41 refs.)

Morgan-Lopez AA; Castro FG; Chassin L; MacKinnon DP. A mediated moderation model of cigarette use among Mexican American youth. (rapid communication). Addictive Behaviors 28(3): 583-589, 2003. (11 refs.)

Nagoshi JL; Marsiglia FF; Parsai M; Castro FG. The moderating effects of ethnic identification on the relationship between parental monitoring and substance use in Mexican heritage adolescents in the southwest united states. Journal of Community Psychology 39(5): 520-533, 2011. (48 refs.)

Nieri T; Kulis S; Keith VM; Hurdle D. Body image, acculturation, and substance abuse among boys and girls in the southwest. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 31(4): 617-639, 2005. (49 refs.)

Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. The TEDS Report: Differences in Substance Abuse Treatment Admissions between Mexican-American Males and Females. (May 5, 2010). Rockville MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, 2010. (5 refs.)

Osborne C; Manning WD; Smock PJ. Married and cohabiting parents' relationship stability: A focus on race and ethnicity. Journal of Marriage and the Family 69(5): 1345-1366, 2007. (69 refs.)

Pena JM; Koss-Chioino JD; Bay C. Searching for universals: Preliminary evidence for the validity of substance abuse subtypes in a sample of Mexican American youths. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 29(2): 445-461, 2003. (18 refs.)

Ramirez AG; Suarez L; Chalela P; Talavera GA; Marti J; Trapido EJ et al. Cancer risk factors among men of diverse Hispanic or Latino origins. Preventive Medicine 39(2): 263-269, 2004. (26 refs.)

Rivera-Hidalgo F; Shulman JD; Beach MM. The association of tobacco and other factors with recurrent aphthous stomatitis in an US adult population. Oral Diseases 10(6): 335-345, 2004. (69 refs.)

Russo D; Purohit V; Foudin L; Salin M. Workshop on alcohol use and health disparities 2002: A call to arms. (editorial). Alcohol 32(1): 37-43, 2004. (14 refs.)

Shorkey C; Windsor LC; Spence R. Assessing culturally competent chemical dependence treatment services for Mexican Americans. Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research 36(1): 61-74, 2009. (35 refs.)

Stewart SH; Connors GJ; Hutson A. Ethnicity and gamma-glutamyltransferase in men and women with alcohol use disorders. Alcohol and Alcoholism 42(1): 24-27, 2007. (22 refs.)

Stimpson JP; Masel MC; Rudkin L; Peek MK. Shared health behaviors among older Mexican American spouses. American Journal of Health Behavior 30(5): 495-502, 2006. (33 refs.)

Strunina L; Edwards EM; Godette DC; Heerene T. Country of origin, age of drinking onset, and drinking patterns among Mexican American young adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 91(2/3): 134-140, 2007. (57 refs.)

Torres LR; Kaplan C; Valdez A. Health consequences of long-term injection heroin use among aging Mexican American men. Journal of Aging and Health 23(6): 912-932, 2011. (67 refs.)

Valdez A. Mexican American youth and adult prison gangs in a changing heroin market. Journal of Drug Issues 35(4): 843-867, 2005. (49 refs.)

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