Serving Substance Abuse Professionals Since 1993

Last Update: 10.04.11

C O R K O N L I N E

powerpoint presentations
CORK database search
resource materials
bibliographies
clinical tools
user services
newsletters
about cork
home

CORK Bibliography: Historical

58 citations. January 2010 to present

Prepared: March 2011

Acker CJ. How crack found a niche in the American ghetto: The historical epidemiology of drug-related harm. BioSocieties 5(1, special issue): 70-88, 2010. (63 refs.)

Although neuroscience has produced elegant models of addiction as a brain process, it does not address the incidence and prevalence of conditions like addiction in populations. As incidence and prevalence are the measures of a condition in a society, understanding rates of social problems is critical to controlling them. Nevertheless, not all upsurges in drug use in a population constitute true emergencies. It is useful to distinguish drug eras, new patterns of drug use that emerge in a population and then stabilize or decline from epidemics of drug-related harm. A historical epidemiology of drug-related harm draws from history, science and social science to examine the conditions that produce such epidemics. Compulsive crack use concentrated in American urban neighborhoods characterized by poverty and cultural isolation in the 1980s and the object of lurid media coverage, can be better understood through the lens of the historical epidemiology of drug-related harm. This model holds that serious upsurges in harmful drug use result from the introduction of powerful new drugs or drug forms to populations that lack experience with them and that suffer from multiple dimensions of structural disadvantage.

Barth KS; Malcolm RJ. Disulfiram: An old therapeutic with new applications. CNS & Neurological Disorders. Drug Targets 9(1): 5-12, 2010. (64 refs.)

Disulfiram treatment, despite its limitations, remains a viable option as a treatment for alcohol dependence and has shown recent promise in treating (1) those with co-morbid alcohol dependence and post-traumatic stress disorder, (2) those with co-morbid cocaine- and alcohol-dependence, and (3) those with cocaine- dependence alone. Although disulfiram's mechanism of action in alcohol dependence was long thought to be its effects as a psychological deterrent, more recent studies have uncovered potential anti-craving effects as well as direct effects of disulfiram on cocaine abuse, highlighting a few of the many potential and unique benefits disulfiram may have through its inhibition of dopamine beta-hydroxylase. This article will review the major clinical trials of disulfiram spanning nearly 60 years. We will discuss the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of disulfiram, indications and limitations of its use, suggestions for appropriate patient populations, and monitoring for compliance and adverse effects. We will also review recent literature on newer potential applications for disulfiram use via its unique action on dopamine beta-hydroxylase.

Benzenhofer U; Passie T. Rediscovering MDMA (ecstasy): The role of the American chemist Alexander T. Shulgin. (editorial). Addiction 105(8): 1355-1361, 2010. (36 refs.)

Aims: Alexander T. Shulgin is widely thought of as the 'father' of +/-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). This paper re-assesses his role in the modern history of this drug. Methods: We analysed systematically Shulgin's original publications on MDMA, his publications on the history of MDMA and his laboratory notebook. Results: According to Shulgin's book PIHKAL (1991), he synthesized MDMA in 1965, but did not try it. In the 1960s Shulgin also synthesized MDMA-related compounds such as 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3-methoxy-4,5-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MMDA) and 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDE), but this had no impact on his rediscovery of MDMA. In the mid-1970s Shulgin learned of a 'special effect' caused by MDMA, whereupon he re-synthesized it and tried it himself in September 1976, as confirmed by his laboratory notebook. In 1977 he gave MDMA to Leo Zeff PhD, who used it as an adjunct to psychotherapy and introduced it to other psychotherapists. Conclusion: Shulgin was not the first to synthesize MDMA, but he played an important role in its history. It seems plausible that he was so impressed by its effects that he introduced it to psychotherapist Zeff in 1977. This, and the fact that in 1978 he published with David Nichols the first paper on the pharmacological action of MDMA in humans, explains why Shulgin is sometimes (erroneously) called the 'father' of MDMA.

Bevacqua T; Hoffman E. William James's "Sick-Minded Soul" and the AA recovery paradigm: Time for a reappraisal26. Journal of Humanistic Psychology 50(4, special issue): 440-458, 2010. (26 refs.)

This article focuses on William James's influence on Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), which arose 25 years after his death to dominate alcoholism treatment ever since as a lay organization. With its early leaders admiringly referring to James as AA's "cofounder," AA and the numerous 12-step programs it has spawned have generally enjoyed a favorable reputation among humanistic psychologists. However, the authors regard this reputation as reflexive and largely undeserved, rather than critically generated. For essentially AA's originators selected and promulgated one particular paradigm in James's multiarrayed approach to alcoholism -- the " self-surrender of the sick-minded soul" -- to the exclusion of all others. In this paradigm, the addicted individual descends into a state of utter despair and then experiences an epiphany leading to self-transformation. However, James never regarded this state -- which Maslow later called the " nadir-experience"-- as the only means to addiction recovery, but rather advocated a diversity of paths, reflecting the variability of human personality. In celebrating this centennial year James's enduring legacy, it is time for humanistic clinicians to take the lead in moving beyond AA's outmoded, " one-size-fits-all" approach to addiction recovery.

Brady M; McGrath V. Making tuba in the Torres Strait Islands: The cultural diffusion and geographic mobility of an alcoholic drink. Journal of Pacific History 45(3): 315-330, 2010. (67 refs.)

There is relatively scant evidence of the Indigenous production and consumption of intoxicating drinks on the Australian mainland prior to the arrival of outsiders. Although Australian Aboriginal peoples had mastered fermentation in some regions, the Indigenous manufacture of much stronger drinks by distillation was unknown on the Australian mainland. However, following contact with Pacific Island and Southeast Asian peoples in the 19th century, Islanders in the Torres Strait adopted techniques for fermenting and distilling what became a quasi-indigenous alcoholic drink known as tuba. This paper discusses the historical process of the diffusion of this substance as a result of labour migration and internationalisation in the Strait, and provides present-day accounts of tuba production from Torres Strait Islanders.

Bucholz KK; Cottler LB. In Memoriam: Lee Nelken Robins, PhD. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 34(2): 197-198, 2010. (1 refs.)

Campbell ND. Toward a critical neuroscience of 'addiction'. BioSocieties 5(1, special issue): 89-104, 2010. (43 refs.)

Early to mid-twentieth century studies on the neurophysiology of the role of conditioned cues in relapse, conducted at the Addiction Research Center in Lexington, Kentucky, were the historical antecedents to today's neuroimaging studies. Attempts in the 1940s to see 'what's going on in the brains of these addicts' were formative for the field, as was foundational work done in the 1940s and 1950s by Abraham Wikler on conditioned cues, the role of what he called the 'limbic system' in relapse, and possible uses of narcotic antagonists to prevent relapse by extinguishing cues. This article sketches the historical context in order to situate continuities between historical antecedents and a current ethnographic case study focused on current neuroimaging studies of the role of 'craving' - and neural processes that precede conscious 'craving' and occur 'outside awareness' - in relapse conducted by Anna Rose Childress at the Treatment Research Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The article showcases the incommensurability between claims that 'addiction' is a matter of individual choice, and claims that it is a neurochemical disorder disruptive of volition. Neuroscientists offer scientific vocabulary and imagery that both shape and respond to the social experience of addiction. The conclusion considers the value of moving toward a critical neuroscience more cognizant of the social worlds in which 'addiction' occurs, not in the restricted sense of 'social factors' but through awareness of the social-situational contexts and relationships within which 'addictions' are experienced and studied.

Campos I. Degeneration and the origins of Mexico's war on drugs. Mexican Studies-Estudios Mexicanos 26(2): 379-408, 2010. (8 refs.)

In the early twentieth century, the concept of "degeneration" helped to turn "drugs" into a problem of national importance in Mexico. By invoking this concept, Mexico's sanitary authorities secured provisions in the Constitution of 1917 which specifically authorized a newly constituted Department of Public Sanitation to lead a nation-wide campaign against drug abuse. That Department then inaugurated Mexico's modern war on drugs when, in 1920, it declared a law governing the import and distribution of the opiates, cocaine, and marijuana nationwide. This essay examines the idea of degeneration and how it came to play this crucial role in the foundation of Mexico's modern war on drugs.

Cockburn A. Marijuana, boom and bust. (editorial). Nation 290(15): 9-9, 2010. (0 refs.)

In this article the author discusses marijuana production in the northern California region of Humboldt County. The history of marijuana in the area is discussed beginning in the 1970s and running through to April 2010. A number of issues are addressed including the attempts by authorities to curtail drug production, the economic advantages of the war on drugs, and the campaign for the use of medical marijuana started by Dennis Peron. The author envisions an era when northern California will be less prosperous because of the legalization of cannabis.

Courtwright DT. The NIDA brain disease paradigm: History, resistance and spinoffs. BioSocieties 5(1, special issue): 137-147, 2010. (31 refs.)

This article examines 'the NIDA paradigm', the theory that addiction is a chronic, relapsing brain disease characterized by loss of control over drug taking. I critically review the official history of the National Institute on Drug Abuse ( NIDA) paradigm and analyze the sources of resistance to it. I argue that, even though the theory remains contested, it has yielded important insights in other fields, including my own discipline of history.

Dannaway FR. Strange fires, weird smokes and psychoactive combustibles: Entheogens and incense in ancient traditions. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 42(4): 485-497, 2010. (105 refs.)

This paper seeks to emphasize what may be the most primary mode of altering consciousness in the ancient world: namely, the burning of substances for inhalation in enclosed areas. While there is abundant literature on archaic uses of entheogenic plants, the literature on psychoactive incenses is quite deficient. From the tents of nomadic tribes to the small meditation rooms of Taoist adepts, the smoldering fumes of plants and resins have been used to invoke and banish and for shamanic travels since humanity mastered fire. The text provides details of primary "incense cults" while highlighting some commonalities and shared influences when possible. Further speculation suggests that selective burning of certain substances, such as mercury and sulphur, may have contributed to their lasting use and veneration in alchemy from India and China to the Arabian and European protochemists. This article would have a companion online database for images and further examples of ingredients in various incenses from China to ancient Greece.

de Meyrick J. Tobacco smoking's changing trajectory in Australia. Journal of Business Research 63(2, Special Issue): 161-165, 2010. (22 refs.)

This paper examines data from four Australian National Health Surveys and shows that decline in tobacco smoking prevalence experienced in Australia since World War II may not have continued as might have been inferred from the Lopez et al. model. The decline may have stabilized at approximately 20% of the adult population despite active anti-smoking campaigns. The data also suggest that changes in smoking status have not been consistent across all segments of the population despite all segments being exposed to the same fear-based campaign strategy. The data also suggests that while this health-scare approach may have coincided with improvements in the proportions of some groups of smokers who successfully quit the habit, ail increase in the proportion of young females who have, at some stage, commenced to smoke has begun. If smoking prevalence is to be eradicated in Australia or other similar markets, campaigns must address cessation and prevention.

Donike M. The detection of doping by means of chromatographic methods. Drug Testing and Analysis 3(1): 15-17, 2011. (14 refs.)

This article was first published in German in Der Sportarzt, 1966, 2, 81-84 as Der Dopingnachweis mit Hilfe chromatographischer Methoden. Translated and republished with permission. Doping has become an issue in elite sport and necessitates sensitive detection assays that enable the identification of organic compounds on a microscale level in urine. In agreement with modern toxicological methods, sports drug testing approaches can utilize paper, thin layer or gas chromatographic methods to reveal the presence of prohibited substances such as strychnine, pervitine, captagone, benzedrine etc. in doping control specimens. Basic principles of these strategies are summarized and considerations for future applications discussed.

Downs C. Mecca and the birth of commercial bingo 1958-70: A case study. Business History 52(7): 1086-1106, 2010. (52 refs.)

The game of bingo has become synonymous with women of a certain age and class and has been stigmatised as a dead-end use of leisure. However, the development of commercial bingo in the wake of the Betting and Gaming Act (1961) offered the leisure industry access to a new and lucrative market. While many major players in the leisure industry of the early 1960s adopted commercial bingo as an adjunct to their offerings the Mecca dancing group adopted a strategy that made bingo so particularly their own that the brand rapidly became known as the bingo and dancing group with Eric Morley of Mecca referred to in the popular press as 'Mr Bingo'. This paper provides a case study of the Mecca group as it moved into commercial gambling, rapidly increased its size and profitability, saw off competition in commercial gambling from larger companies and finally succumbed to a lucrative takeover in 1970.

Edwards G. The trouble with drink: Why ideas matter. Addiction 105(5): 797-804, 2010. (60 refs.)

This paper builds upon the work of previous authors who have explored the evolution of ideas in the alcohol arena. With revisions in the relevant sections of ICD and DSM forthcoming, such matters are of considerable contemporary importance. The focus here will be upon the history of the last 200 years. The main themes to be explored include the flux of ideas on what, over time, has counted as the trouble with drink, ideas on the cause of the problem and the impact of this thinking on public action. Medical authorities of the late Enlightenment period made the revolutionary suggestion that habitual drunkenness constituted a disease, rather than a vice. The thread of that idea can be traced to the present day, but with an alternative perception of drink itself or alcohol-related problems generally, as cause for concern, also having a lineage. There are several inferences to be drawn from this history: the need for vigilance lest disease formulations become stalking-horses for moralism and social control, the need to integrate awareness of alcohol dependence as a dimensional individual-level problem, with a public health understanding of the vastly amorphous and at least equally important universe of alcohol-related problems; the dangers lurking in scientific reductionism when the problems at issue truly require a multi-disciplinary analysis; and the need for global consensus rather than cultural imposition of ideas on what counts as the problem with drink.

Fee E. Charles E. Terry (1878-1945): Early campaigner against drug addiction. (editor). American Journal of Public Health 101(3): 451-451, 2011. (3 refs.)

Feeney K. Revisiting Wasson's Soma: Exploring the effects of preparation on the chemistry of amanita muscaria. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 42(4): 499-506, 2010. (39 refs.)

In 1968 R. Gordon Wasson first proposed his groundbreaking theory identifying Soma, the hallucinogenic sacrament of the Vedas, as the Amanita muscaria mushroom. While Wasson's theory has garnered acclaim, it is not without its faults. One omission in Wasson's theory is his failure to explain how pressing and filtering Soma, as described in the Rig Veda, supports his theory of Soma's identity. Several critics have reasoned that such preparation should be unnecessary if equivalent results can be obtained by consuming the raw plant, as is done with other psychoactive mushrooms. In order to address these specific criticisms over 600 anecdotal accounts of Amanita muscaria inebriation were collected and analyzed to determine the impact of preparation on Amanita muscaria's effects. The findings of this study demonstrated that the effects of Amanita muscaria were related to the type of preparation employed, and that its toxic effects were considerably reduced by preparations that paralleled those described for Soma in the Rig Veda. While unlikely to end debate over the identity of Soma, this study's findings help to solidify the foundation of Wasson's theory, and also to demonstrate the importance of preparation in understanding and uncovering the true identity of Soma.

Glynn T; Seffrin JR; Brawley OW; Grey N; Ross H. The globalization of tobacco use: 21 challenges for the 21st century. CA 60(1): 50-61, 2010. (65 refs.)

The globalization of tobacco began more than 500 years ago, but the public health response to the death, disease, and economic disruption that it has caused is fewer than 50 years old. In this report, the authors briefly trace the history of tobacco use and commerce as it moved from the Americas in the late 15th century and then eastward. They then discuss the wide range of issues that must be addressed, and the equally wide range of expertise that is needed if the global health community is to be successful in reducing, and eventually eliminating, the rising tide of tobacco use, particularly in the low- and middle-income nations that are the target of the multinational tobacco industry.

Gonzales R; Mooney L; Rawson RA. The methamphetamine problem in the United States. (review). Annual Review of Public Health 31: 385-398, 2010. (109 refs.)

Significant public health problems associated with methamphetamine (MA) production and use in the United States have emerged over the past 25 years; however, there has been considerable controversy about the size of the problem. Epidemiological indicators have provided a mixed picture. National surveys of the adult U.S. population and school-based populations have consistently been used to support the position that MA use is a relatively minor concern. However, many other data sources, including law-enforcement groups, welfare agencies, substance abuse treatment program admissions, criminal justice agencies, and state/county executives indicate that MA is a very significant public health problem for many communities throughout much of the country. In this article, we describe (a) the historical underpinnings of the MA problem, (b) epidemiological trends in MA use, (c) key subgroups at risk for MA problems, (d) the health and social factors associated with MA use, (e) interventions available for addressing the MA problem, and (f) lessons learned from past efforts addressing the MA problem.

Green AJ; De-Vries K. Cannabis use in palliative care: An examination of the evidence and the implications for nurses. Journal of Clinical Nursing 19(17-18): 2454-2462, 2010. (57 refs.)

Aim and objective: Examine the pharmaceutical qualities of cannabis including a historical overview of cannabis use. Discuss the use of cannabis as a clinical intervention for people experiencing palliative care, including those with life-threatening chronic illness such as multiple sclerosis and motor neurone disease [amyotrophic lateral sclerosis] in the UK. Background: The non-medicinal use of cannabis has been well documented in the media. There is a growing scientific literature on the benefits of cannabis in symptom management in cancer care. Service users, nurses and carers need to be aware of the implications for care and treatment if cannabis is being used medicinally. Design: A comprehensive literature review. Method: Literature searches were made of databases from 1996 using the term cannabis and the combination terms of cannabis and palliative care; symptom management; cancer; oncology; chronic illness; motor neurone disease/amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; and multiple sclerosis. Internet material provided for service users searching for information about the medicinal use of cannabis was also examined. Results: The literature on the use of cannabis in health care repeatedly refers to changes for users that may be equated with improvement in quality of life as an outcome of its use. This has led to increased use of cannabis by these service users. However, the cannabis used is usually obtained illegally and can have consequences for those who choose to use it for its therapeutic value and for nurses who are providing care. Relevance to clinical practice. Questions and dilemmas are raised concerning the role of the nurse when caring and supporting a person making therapeutic use of cannabis.

Grinev AV. The distribution of alcohol among the natives of Russian America. Arctic Anthropology 47(2): 69-79, 2010. (41 refs.)

The study of archival materials and published historical and ethnographic sources shows that alcohol played an insignificant role in contacts with the aboriginal population during the Russian colonization of Alaska. The Russian-American Company (RAC) tried to fight alcoholism and limited access of spirits to the natives of the Russian colonies partially for moral and partially for economic reasons. The only Alaskan natives to whom agents of the RAC supplied rum in large quantities were the Tlingit and Kaigani Haida in 1830-1842, and among them excessive drinking became a widespread problem. The chief suppliers of alcohol for these Native Americans were the British and American traders at the end of the eighteenth century. In the mid-nineteenth century traders and whalers began to supply it to the Bering Sea Eskimos as well. Russian colonization was marked by efforts to limit drunkenness in the native populations. In that sense, Russian colonization was favorable in comparison with subsequent American colonization of Alaska.

Gross M. Alcoholics Anonymous: Still sober after 75 years. (editorial). American Journal of Public Health 100(12): 2361-2363, 2010. (18 refs.)

Hajdu SI; Vadmal MS. A note from history: The use of tobacco. Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science 40(2): 178-181, 2010. (19 refs.)

This article provides a 450 year history of tobacco use. There is no written record in reference to tobacco prior to the 15th century. However, it is generally acknowledged that indigenous Americans used tobacco as a medicine and smoked tobacco. In 1492, Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) and his crew, when returning to Europe from the Americas, brought the first tobacco leaves and seeds into Europe. In 1560, Jean Nicot (1530-1600), French diplomat and importer, introduced tobacco in France and Portugal. By the end of the 16th century, tobacco use had became a custom among fashionable people in Europe and tobacco was being exported to India, China, and Japan. Tobacco was seen as a medicinal product. Chewing tobacco was recommended for toothache, gum diseases, aches in the throat, and mental depression. Decanted liquor of boiled tobacco was used internally to treat indigestion, aches in the belly, and urinary obstruction. Ashes of burned tobacco were mixed with hog grease and applied as an ointment to ulcerated skin, warts, and dermal cancer. Smoking tobacco was claimed to improve body odor and to prevent the plague. Persons of all ages and classes smoked excessively during the great epidemics. Smoke blown into the ear cured earache and when applied to the anus relieved constipation and bloody discharge. Tobacco juice dropped into the ears improved deafness. Tobacco that was made into a syrup with honey was used to treat asthma, chest diseases, cough, and syphilis. With time, tobacco ceased to be seen as a cure for virtually all disorders. In 1604, King James I of England rendered a written warning that smoking was harmful to the eye, nose, brain, and lungs. He placed a heavy duty and a local tax on imported tobacco. Korea and Japan banned smoking to prevent fires. China and Turkey prohibited smoking to prevent a trade inbalance. In 1660, England prohibited the planting of tobacco and placed restrictions on selling imported tobacco. In the 1700s, the first report on cancer occuring in heavy users was reported in medical journals. In the 1800s the active ingredient, nicotine, was first identified, it is one of the most potent vegitable poisons. In the 1800s, there was a decline in medicinal use; and was replaced by the habit of smoking for pleasure. In the mid-1900s the role of tobacco as a factor in a host of diseases was recognized. One of the milestones was the 1964 publication of report by the US Surgeon General making this clear. The author notes it took nearly 450 years to apprehend and distinguish the true and falsely claimed consequences of tobacco use.

Hall W. What are the policy lessons of National Alcohol Prohibition in the United States, 1920-1933? (editorial). Addiction 105(7): 1164-1173, 2010. (53 refs.)

National alcohol prohibition in the United States between 1920 and 1933 is believed widely to have been a misguided and failed social experiment that made alcohol problems worse by encouraging drinkers to switch to spirits and created a large black market for alcohol supplied by organized crime. The standard view of alcohol prohibition provides policy lessons that are invoked routinely in policy debates about alcohol and other drugs. The alcohol industry invokes it routinely when resisting proposals to reduce the availability of alcohol, increase its price or regulate alcohol advertising and promotion. Advocates of cannabis law reform invoke it frequently in support of their cause. This paper aims: (i) to provide an account of alcohol prohibition that is more accurate than the standard account because it is informed by historical and econometric analyses; (ii) to describe the policy debates in the 1920s and 1930s about the effectiveness of national prohibition; and (iii) to reflect on any relevance that the US experience with alcohol prohibition has for contemporary policies towards alcohol. It is incorrect to claim that the US experience of National Prohibition indicates that prohibition as a means of regulating alcohol is always doomed to failure. Subsequent experience shows that partial prohibitions can produce substantial public health benefits at an acceptable social cost, in the absence of substantial enforcement.

Harkonen JT; Makela P. Changes in the norms guiding alcohol use in the Finnish general population over the past 40 years. Addiction Research & Theory 18(4): 392-408, 2010. (49 refs.)

Attitudinal climate can be seen as a central factor influencing drinking habits; the level of consumption has been claimed to depend on how many adverse consequences of drinking a society tolerates. In the past few decades, however, only a few studies have looked at normative aspects of drinking in the general population. This article investigates changes in attitudes and norms around drinking in Finland by reviewing existing research and presenting new results. We ask whether men and women's views on alcohol differ and are there differences between age groups. The focus is on identifying long-term changes in the attitudinal climate of alcohol use. The main data is based on six national drinking habits surveys of 15-69-year olds conducted in 1968, 1976, 1984, 1992, 2000 and 2008. Data from the Scandinavian drinking survey in 1979 and the Finnish alcohol panel survey in 2003 are also used. Since the 1960s, attitudes towards one's own use of alcohol have become progressively more permissive and gender differences have converged. Results on situational norms showed that the acceptance of drinking increased in a leisure context, while there were no substantial changes in everyday and work situations. However, attitudes around alcohol policy varied through the studied time frame. In the 1970s, new liberalizations in alcohol policy induced great concerns, which settled down through the 1980s until the early 1990s. Since the end of 1990s, greater calls have been made for stricter alcohol policies, even though views on personal use of alcohol have become more permissive than ever.

Hastings A. William James, conversion and rapid, radical transformation. Journal of Consciousness Studies 17(11-12): 116-120, 2010. (9 refs.)

This essay briefly considers the psychology of radical psychological transformations, sometimes termed 'quantum change', such as religious conversions. Such transformations are the focus of two of William James's chapters in The Varieties of Religious Experience. They can occur abruptly, resulting in a restructuring of the entire personality, sometimes in the direction of greater health, or recovery from drug addiction. The author summarizes seven reported aspects of quantum change such as positive shifts of values or attitudes, widening of perspectives, and increases in self discipline.

Hellman M. From myth of marginality to portrayals of an addictive society: Reporting on addictions in the Finnish press (1968-2006). Addiction Research & Theory 18(2): 224-242, 2010. (60 refs.)

This study uses a systematically collected dataset to explore and discuss how the coverage of addiction has changed in Finland's biggest daily, Helsingin Sanomat, during the period 1968-2006. Newspaper texts have been collected through systematic reading of 432 issues (N = 432) from sampled weeks with the main aim of investigating some general trends in the addiction reporting over time. The study consists of two main parts. First, based on a systematic reading the themes, formats and frequency of addiction reporting were examined. In the second stage, a content analysis was conducted on a corpus of texts on addiction (n = 200) selected with the main criteria of dealing with "continous problematic repetitive behavior" that is related to excessive alcohol use, drug intake, tobacco use, compulsive eating, gambling, and sexual behavior. Variables to be analyzed are (1) type of addiction dealt with, (2) who is the addict, and (3) view(s) on type of problem as portrayed in the text. The results from the study show that the addiction reporting starts out from being a more clear product of so called time-out culture (Jensen BK. 1995. The social semiotics of mass communication. London: SAGE Publications), reflecting on the extraordinary and describing marginality. In the end of the 1990s, the texts start to have another function as compulsive behaviors are seen as something more common, and described more often from the individual's perspective. At the same time, a general tabloidization is putting its marks on the form and content of the addiction coverage.

Hirshbein L. "We mentally ill smoke a lot": Identity, smoking, and mental illness in America. Journal of Social History 44(1): 7-+, 2010. (39 refs.)

Most of the history of the tobacco industry over the last few decades has focused on the conflicts between tobacco industry leaders who promoted smoking and tobacco control advocates who warned of the health consequences. Yet a view of this conflict from the perspective of smokers who are also mentally ill raises questions about how to frame public health policy for these individuals. Mentally ill consumers wrote to the tobacco industry between the 1970s and 1990s and expressed their commitment to smoking and to cigarette companies, despite their awareness of the health risks: This paper explores the relationship between mentally ill consumers, the tobacco industry, and public health in the United States through letters written by mentally ill smokers.

Jackson M. "Divine Stramonium": The rise and fall of smoking for asthma. Medical History 54(2): 171-194, 2010. (93 refs.)

During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, one of the commonest remedies for asthma, recommended by doctors and adopted by patients across Europe and North America, was to inhale the smoke from cigarettes or powders containing stramonium and other plant preparations. Increasing reliance on the inhalation of stramonium was the result of a number of cultural, clinical and technological developments: the rising popularity of smoking tobacco, opium, and cannabis; new theories of asthma, which emphasised the primary role of spasmodic bronchoconstriction; and growing commercial interest in the production of inhalers for the delivery of medicines directly to the lungs. From the early decades of the twentieth century, however, the wisdom of smoking for asthma was gradually challenged, not only by shifting theories of asthma, which stressed the pathogenetic importance of allergic inflammation in addition to bronchospasm, but also by the emergence of novel pharmaceutical approaches to treatment, by the definition and statutory regulation of poisons and dangerous drugs, and by the gradual recognition of an association between tobacco smoking and cancer. Although the commercial distribution and public consumption of medicated cigarettes and powders continued, smoking stramonium for asthma was eventually proscribed during the final decades of the twentieth century as the direct product of rising concerns about drug abuse amongst young people. In spite of an expansive literature on the history of tobacco consumption and regulation on both sides of the Atlantic and in spite of accounts of smoking opium and cannabis for both recreational and medical purposes, there has been little historical interest in the therapeutic applications of smoking. This article analyses the rise and fall of the smoking cure for asthma, particularly in the Western medical tradition, within the context of shifting approaches to asthma, the changing fortunes of smoking, and developments in the pharmaceutical industry.

Jamieson PE; Romer D. Trends in US movie tobacco portrayal since 1950: A historical analysis. Tobacco Control 19(3): 179-184, 2010. (46 refs.)

Objective: Portrayal of tobacco use in films has been causally linked to youth smoking initiation. However, findings regarding trends in portrayal in US films since 1950 are inconsistent, potentially due to differences in sampling densities, intercoder reliabilities and time periods covered. The present study was designed to overcome these inconsistencies with a common sampling frame and methodology. Methods: A half sample of the 30 top-grossing US films per year from 1950 to 2006 (N=855) was coded in 5-min segments for total tobacco-related content and main character tobacco use. Film tobacco trends were identified using linear regression and compared to national per capita cigarette consumption and historically significant tobacco control events. Results Tobacco content declined considerably since 1950. Total tobacco-related content peaked around 1961, while the decline in portrayal of main character use was already underway in 1950. Cigarette consumption peaked around 1966 with a trend that closely paralleled total tobacco content and that coincided with major tobacco control events. Conclusions: This study, which had high reliability, dense sampling and covered a long time period, indicates that tobacco content has declined in top-ranked US movies since 1950 with a trend in total tobacco content that closely paralleled the drop in per capita cigarette consumption and the increase in significant tobacco control efforts. Despite the inability to draw causal conclusions, tobacco portrayal in films may serve as barometer of societal support for the habit and thus efforts should continue to limit exposure to such content.

Kerwin J. The asterisk chronicles: A short history of steroid use and analysis. Drug Testing and Analysis 2(9-10): 456-459, 2010. (41 refs.)

Self-injection of extracts from dog and guinea pig testicles by C.-E. Brown-Sequard in 1889 initiated widespread use of organotherapy following (apparently unsubstantiated) claims of increased physical strength and mental acuity. While there were previous experiments on humans and animals using similar extracts, this report launched worldwide use of these potent "Elixirs of Life." In 1927, a crude but potent form of testosterone was isolated; however, it wasn't until 1935 that testosterone was crystallized, and a facile synthesis of testosterone developed using cholesterol as a starting material. There is some question about the provenance of the discovery, but the pertinent issue is that subsequent rapid progress in research on this compound and structurally related anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) led to their widespread use in diagnosis and treatment of human and other animal maladies-among other things. The quest for magic elixirs dates at least back to the ancient Greeks, calling into question the protestations of Pierre de Coubertin and others, who exploited the myth of athletic purity while promoting the development of modern Olympic competitions. Paul de Kruif (circa 1945) experimented with testosterone injections, leading him to extol the ability of steroids to not only add weight and muscle mass, but to prolong sexual prowess and increase productivity. A pivotal period in the explosion of steroid use can be traced to the 1952 Olympics in Helsinki, specifically the performance of weight lifters from the former Soviet Union, and the Vienna1954 World Weightlifting Championships. Following exceptional performances by the Soviet team, Dr John Ziegler and Bob Hoffman, team physician and coach, respectively, of the United States weightlifting team, suspected the Soviet team of using "the hormone stuff", a conjecture subsequently confirmed by a Soviet team physician after an extended evening at a Vienna tavern. Upon returning to the USA, Ziegler experimented with testosterone injections on himself, Hoffman, and selected members of the weightlifting team, with impressive results. Claiming the results were due to a revolutionary training technique, the steroid supplements were not mentioned. Ziegler is recognized as one of, if not the most, pivotal figures in promoting early steroid use for athletic performance enhancement.The impact of "Pumping Iron "on the bodybuilding community (and other athletes) worldwide was immense and immediate, putting Venice Beach-and steroid use-on the map. Dan Duchaine further rattled both the habitu�s of Gold's Gym and the Venice Beach law enforcement community with the 1981 publication of The Underground Steroid Handbook for Men and Women (USH)." the use of laboratory tests to identify steroid use, emerged in the 1970s and early 1980s. The growth of testing and current status are described.

Kreek MJ. Overview and historical perspective of four papers presented on research related to the endogenous opioid system. (editorial). Drug and Alcohol Dependence 108(3, special issue): 195-199, 2010. (28 refs.)

Lee PR; Lee DR; Lee P. 2010: US drug and alcohol policy, looking back and moving forward. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 42(2): 99-114, 2010. (126 refs.)

Since the early twentieth century, both moral perspectives and changing perceptions of the disease model of alcoholism and addiction have significantly influenced the formulation of U.S. domestic policy on drugs and alcohol. Some fluctuations have occurred in federal drug policy but overall a prohibitive, punitive approach has been emphasised. Racial and socioeconomic disparities have been exacerbated by the inequities of drug laws. Over the past 50 years, limited progress has been made in challenging and changing these unproductive policies. A great deal of progress has been made in research and treatment, and in the understanding of the process of recovery. For the upcoming generation to move policy in the direction shown to be effective by experienced addiction professionals will entail a wide spectrum of interdependent actions in substance abuse research, education, prevention and treatment, and continued cooperation between many stakeholders.

Li TK. From herbal roots to synthetic medicines: A historical perspective. (editorial). Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 34(1): 1-3, 2010. (27 refs.)

Lucke JC; Brown W; Tooth L; Loxton D; Byles J; Spallek M et al. Health across generations: Findings from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Biological Research For Nursing 12(2): 162-170, 2010. (34 refs.)

Interpretation of changes in health and health care utilization patterns across the life span depends on an understanding of the effects of age, period, and cohort. The purpose of this article is to illustrate differences among three generations of women in demographic factors, health risk factors, and health status indicators from 1996 to 2008. The article examines data from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health, a broad-ranging project funded by the Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA) and involving three age groups of women (born in the periods 1973-1978, 1946-1951, and 1921-1926) who were first surveyed in 1996 and will be surveyed every 3 years until at least 2015. Patterns in selected demographic factors (marital status and level of educational qualification), health risk factors (smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, and body mass index [BMI]), and health status indicators (asthma, hypertension, diabetes and depression; physical functioning and mental health scores from the SF-36) were examined to illustrate examples of biological age, generational differences, or period effects that affect all age groups and generations simultaneously. The results can be used to inform the development of responsive and effective models for both prevention and management of chronic disease, including health and aged-care systems that will meet the needs of different generations of women across their life span.

Luckin B. Anti-drink driving reform in Britain, c. 1920-80. (editorial). Addiction 105(9): 1538-1544, 2010. (51 refs.)

Aim: The: goal of this report is to provide a framework for understanding and interpreting political, scientific and cultural attitudes towards drink driving in 20th-century Britain. Exploring the inherent conservatism of successive governments, Members of Parliament (MPs) and the public towards the issue during the interwar years, the contribution seeks to explain the shift from legislative paralysis to the introduction of the breathalyser in 1967. Design: Based on governmental, parliamentary and administrative records, the report follows a mainly narrative route. It places particular emphasis on connections between post-war extra-parliamentary and parliamentary movements for reform. Setting: The paper follows a linear path from the 1920s to the 1970s. Britain lies at the heart of the story but comparisons are made with nations-particularly the Scandinavian states-which took radical steps to prosecute drinking and dangerous drivers at an early date. Findings: The report underlines the vital post-war role played by Graham Page, leading parliamentary spokesman for the Pedestrians' Association; the centrality of the Drew Report (1959) into an 'activity resembling driving'; the pioneering Conservative efforts of Ernest Marples; and Barbara Castle's consolidating rather than radically innovative activities between 1964 and 1967. Conclusion: Both before and after the Second World War politicians from both major parties gave ground repeatedly to major motoring organizations. With the ever-escalating growth of mass motorization in the 1950s, both Conservative and Labour governments agonized over gridlock and 'murder on the roads'. Barbara Castle finally took decisive action against drink drivers, but the ground had been prepared by Graham Page and Ernest Marples.

Maldonado-Molina MM; Wagenaar AC. Effects of alcohol taxes on alcohol-related mortality in Florida: Time-series analyses from 1969 to 2004. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 34(11): 1915-1921, 2010. (52 refs.)

Background: Over a hundred studies have established the effects of beverage alcohol taxes and prices on sales and drinking behaviors. Yet, relatively few studies have examined effects of alcohol taxes on alcohol-related mortality. We evaluated effects of multiple changes in alcohol tax rates in the state of Florida from 1969 to 2004 on disease (not injury) mortality. Methods: A time-series quasi-experimental research design was used, including nonalcohol deaths within Florida and other states' rates of alcohol-related mortality for comparison. A total of 432 monthly observations of mortality in Florida were examined over the 36-year period. Analyses included ARIMA, fixed-effects, and random-effects models, including a noise model, tax independent variables, and structural covariates. Results: We found significant reductions in mortality related to chronic heavy alcohol consumption following legislatively induced increases in alcohol taxes in Florida. The frequency of deaths (t = -2.73, p = 0.007) and the rate per population (t = -2.06, p = 0.04) declined significantly. The elasticity effect estimate is -0.22 (t = -1.88, p = 0.06), indicating a 10% increase in tax is associated with a 2.2% decline in deaths. Conclusions: Increased alcohol taxes are associated with significant and sizable reductions in alcohol-attributable mortality in Florida. Results indicate that 600 to 800 lives per year could be saved if real tax rates were returned to 1983 levels (when the last tax increase occurred). Findings highlight the role of tax policy as an effective means for reducing deaths associated with chronic heavy alcohol use.

Miranda M; Williams AM; Garcia-Borreguero D. Thomas de Quincey and his restless legs symptoms as depicted in "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater". (editorial). Movement Disorders 25(13): 2006-2009, 2010. (14 refs.)

Thomas de Quincey, a British writer of 19th century, suffered insomnia from the age of 17 years. In his famous "Confessions of an English-Opium Eater" (1822), he described a symptomatology that could concord with restless legs syndrome long before he became addicted to opium. In this report, we analyze his clinical description and the circumstances leading to his opium addiction.

Nesmerak K; Sticha M; Cvancarova M. HPLC/MS analysis of historical pharmaceutical preparations of heroin and cocaine. Analytical Letters 43(16): 2572-2581, 2010. (24 refs.)

Pharmaceutical preparations of heroin and cocaine more than seventy years old were analyzed using RP-HPLC. The composition of mobile phase was optimized. The components were identified by MS2 or MS3, and the APPI fragmentation mechanisms of compounds found were proposed. The sample of heroin hydrochloride injection solution consists of 96.1% morphine and 3.9% of codeine. The sample of cocaine hydrochloride injection solution consists of 26.9% cocaine, 31.5% benzoylecgonine, 17.4% ecgonine, and 24.2% ecgonine methyl ester.

Office on Smoking and Health, Centers for Disease Control. Cigarette use among high school students --- United States, 1991--2009. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Review 59(26): 797-801, 2010. (10 refs.)

This report updates a previous report describing results of CDC's 2010 analysis of YRBS data from 1991--2009 for three measures: ever smoked cigarettes, current cigarette use, and current frequent cigarette use. For ever smoked cigarettes, the prevalence did not change from 1991 (70.1%) to 1999 (70.4%), declined to 58.4% in 2003, and then declined more gradually, to 46.3% in 2009. For current cigarette use, the prevalence increased from 27.5% in 1991 to 36.4% in 1997, declined to 21.9% in 2003, and then declined more gradually, to 19.5% in 2009. For current frequent cigarette use, the prevalence increased from 12.7% in 1991 to 16.8% in 1999, declined to 9.7% in 2003, and then declined more gradually, to 7.3% in 2009. For all three measures, rates began to decline in the late 1990s, but the rate of decline slowed during 2003--2009. The percentage of students who ever smoked cigarettes did not change from 1991 (70.1%) to 1999 (70.4%), declined to 58.4% in 2003, and then declined more gradually to 46.3% in 2009. The percentage of students who reported current cigarette use increased from 27.5% in 1991 to 36.4% in 1997, declined to 21.9% in 2003, and declined more gradually to 19.5% in 2009. The percentage of students who reported current frequent cigarette use increased from 12.7% in 1991 to 16.8% in 1999, declined to 9.7% in 2003, and then declined more gradually to 7.3% in 2009. For current cigarette use, trend analyses were conducted by sex, race/ethnicity, and grade in school. Among male students overall, white students overall, white male students, Hispanic male students, and 11th-grade students, current cigarette use increased from 1991 to 1997, declined from 1997 to 2003, and then remained stable. Among Hispanic students overall and Hispanic female students, current cigarette use increased from 1991 to 1995, declined from 1995 to 2003, and then remained stable. Among 12th-grade students, current cigarette use increased from 1991 to 1999, declined from 1999 to 2003, and then remained stable. Among black female students, only linear and quadratic effects were observed, indicating that the prevalence of current cigarette use increased from 1991 to 1999 and then declined, with no slowing or leveling off.

Public Domain

Palamar J. How ephedrine escaped regulation in the United States: A historical review of misuse and associated policy. (review). Health Policy 99(1): 1-9, 2011. (97 refs.)

Objective: Ephedrine is not only efficacious in the treatment of numerous ailments, but also has a long history of misuse. Research was needed to examine ephedrine policy over time in order to determine potential regulatory flaws that allowed misuse to continue. Methods: This review is based on primary literature derived from systematic searches of historical and scientific archives, as well as grey literature. Results: Ephedrine managed to pass through numerous regulatory loopholes within seventy years. Despite warnings of misuse over the latter half of the century, ephedrine, and its herbal source, ephedra, were regulated in a piecemeal fashion and remained easily available to the public. Health authorities have struggled to control ephedrine, as an amphetamine "look-alike," as a methamphetamine precursor, as a dietary supplement, and as a medication. Despite being a potentially dangerous stimulant, under-regulation was perhaps more problematic than the substance itself. Conclusions: Tighter control of all ephedrine products, drugs and dietary supplements alike, might have prevented adverse outcomes and allowed this substance to remain available in a safer manner. Stringent regulation of all ephedrine products is necessary to prevent misuse and to protect the public's health.

Petticrew MP; Lee K. The "Father of Stress" meets "Big Tobacco": Hans Selye and the tobacco industry. American Journal of Public Health 101(3): 411-418, 2011. (98 refs.)

The concept of stress remains prominent in public health and owes much to the work of Hans Selye (1907-1982), the "father of stress." One of his main allies in this work has never been discussed as such: the tobacco industry. After an analysis of tobacco industry documents, we found that Selye received extensive tobacco industry funding and that his research on stress and health was used in litigation to defend the industry's interests and argue against a causal role for smoking in coronary heart disease and cancer. These findings have implications for assessing the scientific integrity of certain areas of stress research and for understanding corporate influences on public health research, including research on the social determinants of health.

Robins LN; Helzer JE; Hesselbrock M; Wish E. Vietnam Veterans three years after Vietnam: How our study changed our view of heroin. American Journal on Addictions 19(3): 203-211, 2010. (3 refs.)

This is a reprint of a paper originally published in 1977, in the Proceedings of the Thirty-Ninth Annual Scientific Meeting of the Committee on Problems of Drug Dependence. It is a seminal article based on follow-up of Vietnam Veterans who tested positive for heroin use upon their return from Vietnam. A number of the findings were wholly unexpected, such as the ease of ceasing heroin use without treatment and without signficant problems. The conclusion was that in late 1974 was no more likely to be used regularly or daily if used at all than were marijuana or amphetamines. It was more likely to be used regularly than other narcotics and other non-narcotic drugs. As compared with marijuana and amphetamines, what is distinctive about heroin is not its liability for daily use, but the fact that daily users perceive themselves as dependent. Despite their dependence, they manage to quit use much more often than anyone would have guessed and can often even return to use without becoming dependent again. Heroin users are polydrug users of an extreme kind, who use a greater variety of other drugs than do less regular heroin users. People who use heroin are highly disposed to have serious social problems even before they touch heroin. Heroin probably accounts for some of the problems they have if it is used regularly, but heroin is "worse" than amphetamines or barbiturates only because worse people use it. What are the policy implications of our findings? It would seem that our society has overemphasized the importance of treatment for heroin per se, failing to pay attention to the multiple other problems that heroin addicts have. Heroin addicts are deeply involved with a great variety of other drugs at the same time they are involved with heroin, and they have all kinds of social adjustment difficulties that are not entirely attributable to heroin. It is small wonder that our treatment results have not been more impressive, when they have focused so narrowly on only one part of the problem.

Room R. The long reaction against the wowser: The prehistory of alcohol deregulation in Australia. Health Sociology Review 19(2): 151-163, 2010. (36 refs.)

The cultural and historical background of the substantial deregulation of alcohol sales in Australia in the last quarter century is described and discussed. Drinking and intoxication was contested ground in Australian history, stereotypically split between the heavy-drinking male world of primary industries and the more feminine world of the suburb. In the temperance era of the late 19th and early 20th century, restrictions on alcohol sales gained ground, epitomised by six o'clock closing adopted during World War I. Alcohol's cultural position shifted after World War II: alcohol problems were redefined in terms of alcoholism, a personal failing, and a cultural-political movement led by the Sydney Bulletin led a successful cultural-political movement to caricature and derogate 'wowsers'. Meanwhile, the alcohol industry moved to identify itself with high-valued features of Australian life. By the 1960s, a dynamic of relaxation of alcohol controls had started, starting with repeal of six o'clock closing and continuing to the present day.

Sharma HK; Tripathi BM; Pelto PJ. The evolution of alcohol use in India. AIDS and Behavior 14(Supplement 1): 8-17, 2010. (34 refs.)

This paper traces the role of alcohol production and use in the daily lives of people in India, from ancient times to the present day. Alcohol use has been an issue of great ambivalence throughout the rich and long history of the Indian subcontinent. The behaviors and attitudes about alcohol use in India are very complex, contradictory and convoluted because of the many different influences in that history. The evolution of alcohol use patterns in India can be divided into four broad historical periods (time of written records), beginning with the Vedic era (ca. 1500-700 BCE). From 700 BCE to 1100 CE, ("Reinterpretation and Synthesis") is the time of emergence of Buddhism and Jainism, with some new anti-alcohol doctrines, as well as post-Vedic developments in the Hindu traditions and scholarly writing. The writings of the renowned medical practitioners, Charaka and Susruta, added new lines of thought, including arguments for "moderate alcohol use." The Period of Islamic Influence (1100-1800 CE), including the Mughal era from the 1520s to 1800, exhibited a complex interplay of widespread alcohol use, competing with the clear Quranic opposition to alcohol consumption. The fourth period (1800 to the present) includes the deep influence of British colonial rule and the recent half century of Indian independence, beginning in 1947. The contradictions and ambiguities-with widespread alcohol use in some sectors of society, including the high status caste of warriors/rulers (Kshatriyas), versus prohibitions and condemnation of alcohol use, especially for the Brahmin (scholar-priest) caste, have produced alcohol use patterns that include frequent high-risk, heavy and hazardous drinking. The recent increases in alcohol consumption in many sectors of the general Indian population, coupled with the strong evidence of the role of alcohol in the spread of HIV/STI infections and other health risks, point to the need for detailed understanding of the complex cross-currents emerging from the past history of alcohol use and abuse in India.

Shepard TH; Barr M; Brent RL; Hendrickx A; Kochhar D; Oakley G et al. An updated history of the Teratology Society. (review). Birth Defects Research. Part A: Clinical and Molecular Teratology 88(5): 263-285, 2010. (24 refs.)

BACKGROUND: The 49-year history of the Teratology Society is reviewed. An abbreviated history is outlined in table form, with listings of the Warkany Lectures, the Continuing Education Courses, and officers of the society. The original article was updated to include the years 2000 to 2010. METHODS: A year-by-year description of the events is given, including the scientific and social content of the annual meetings and changes in the business of the society, in many cases using comments from the past presidents. The valuable and unique diversity of the members is discussed and illustrated, presenting the disciplines and main research areas of the presidents. The number of submitted abstracts and the various categories are tabulated, averaging the number and type over successive periods. A significant increase in the number of abstracts dealing with epidemiology and developmental biology is evident. The society's development is compared to that of a human, and the question was asked by Shephard et al. (2000): Have we reached the maturational stage of old age or senescence, or is the society still maturing gracefully? This question needs further discussion by all the members. By 2010, many positive changes are happening to revitalize the society. RESULTS: During the past 50 years, we have developed the scientific basis to prevent birth defects caused by rubella, alcoholism, and folate deficiency, as well as other prenatal exposures. We are now taking advantage of advances in many fields to begin shaping the Teratology Society of the 21st century. CONCLUSIONS: We must now engage in political battles to obtain the resources needed to conduct further research and to implement prevention programs, as well as to provide care and rehabilitation for persons with birth defects.

Skinner MD; Aubin HJ. Craving's place in addiction theory: Contributions of the major models. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 34(4): 606-623, 2010. (146 refs.)

We examine in this paper the unfolding of craving concepts within 18 models that span roughly 60 years (1948-2009). The amassed evidence suggests that craving is an indispensable construct, useful as a research area because it has continued to destabilize patients seeking treatment for substances. The models fall into four categories: the conditioning-based models, the cognitive models, the psychobiological models, and the motivation models. In the conditioning models, craving is assumed to be an automatic, unconscious reaction to a stimulus. In the cognitive models, craving arises from the operation of information processing systems. In the psychobiological models, craving can be explained at least in part by biological factors with an emphasis on motivational components. Finally, in the motivation models, craving is viewed as a component of a larger decision-making framework. It is well accepted that no single model explains craving completely, suggesting that a solid understanding of the phenomenon will only occur with consideration from multiple angles. A reformulated definition of craving is proposed.

Smith DE. Addiction and related disorders: Introduction. (editorial). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 42(2): 97-98, 2010. (0 refs.)

Smith DE. The evolution of addiction medicine and its San Francisco roots. (editorial). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 42(2): 199-201, 2010. (12 refs.)

Sussman S; Black DS; Rohrbach LA. A concise history of school-based smoking prevention research: A pendulum effect case study. Journal of Drug Education 40(3): 217-226, 2010. (44 refs.)

School-based cigarette smoking prevention was initiated shortly after the first Surgeon General's Report in 1964. This article highlights a sequence of events by which school-based tobacco use prevention research developed as a science, and illustrates a pendulum effect, with confidence in tobacco use prevention increasing and decreasing at different points in time. Suggestions are offered to advance school-based smoking prevention research.

Terplan M; Smith EJ; Kozloski MJ; Pollack HA. "Compassionate coercion": Factors associated with court-mandated drug and alcohol treatment in pregnancy 1994-2005. Journal of Addiction Medicine 4(3): 147-152, 2010. (17 refs.)

Objectives: To describe trends in court-mandated treatment in pregnancy. In particular, to determine whether pregnant women who enter treatment via the criminal justice system differ from women who enter voluntarily. Methods: Data were obtained from the Treatment Episode Data Set, an administrative data set that captures admissions to federally funded treatment centers in the United States. Demographic and treatment-related measures were examined among pregnant women comparing referral source and stratified by year of admission to assess trends over time. Results: Throughout the study period, the proportion of pregnant women entering substance abuse treatment via the criminal justice system increased more rapidly than the increase observed among men or nonpregnant women reaching 30.9% by 2005. Compared with voluntary admissions, admissions originating in the criminal justice system were more likely to be white, young, and employed. The primary substances compelling court-mandated treatment for pregnant women were alcohol and cocaine in 1994, and by 2005 it had shifted to amphetamine and marijuana. Conclusion: The increase in criminal justice referrals parallels the growth of drug courts. The demographic characteristics of the pregnant referrals, however, suggest the presence of gaps in both screening and treatment in pregnancy.

Thun MJ. Early landmark studies of smoking and lung cancer. Lancet Oncology 11(12): 1200-1200, 2010. (6 refs.)

Valentine G; Holloway SL; Jayne M. Generational patterns of alcohol consumption: Continuity and change. Health & Place 16(5): 916-925, 2010. (63 refs.)

In most contemporary western societies there is growing concern about rising levels of alcohol consumption, particularly by young people, even in countries, such as France, which have previously been assumed to have 'sensible' drinking cultures Recent popular and policy debates about British drinking cultures have hinted at a shift in generational attitudes towards alcohol, as well as patterns of consumption. Previous intergenerational studies of work and care have found that in particular historical periods different normativities develop, reflecting both social and economic conditions. In this paper, we draw on a research project about alcohol consumption conducted in an urban and rural area - including intergenerational interviews with case study families - to identify the different normativities in terms of attitudes towards and consumption of alcohol experienced by three cohort generations in their youth. The paper then goes on to explore the patterns of both change and continuity that are evident in the interviewees' experiences. The conclusion reflects on drivers of intergenerational change and associated health policy implications.

Vrecko S. Birth of a brain disease: Science, the state and addiction neuropolitics. History of the Human Sciences 23(4): 52-67, 2010. (79 refs.)

This article critically interrogates contemporary forms of addiction medicine that are portrayed by policy-makers as providing a 'rational' or politically neutral approach to dealing with drug use and related social problems. In particular, it examines the historical origins of the biological facts that are today understood to provide a foundation for contemporary understandings of addiction as a 'disease of the brain'. Drawing upon classic and contemporary work on 'styles of thought', it documents how, in the period between the mid-1960s and the mid-1970s, such facts emerged in relation to new neurobiological styles of explaining and managing social problems associated with drug abuse, and an alliance between a relatively marginal group of researchers and American policy-makers who were launching the 'War on Drugs'. Beyond illustrating the political and material conditions necessary for the rise of addiction neuroscience, the article highlights the productivity of neurobiological thought styles, by focusing on the new biological objects, treatments and hopes that have emerged within the field of addiction studies over the last several decades.

Walker D; Henderson M. Smoking and health in London's East End in the first half of the 19th century. Post-Medieval Archaeology 44(1): 209-222, 2010. (23 refs.)

The harmful effects of smoking are now proven, but to what extent can tobacco use be identified in 19th-century skeletal remains? The full osteological analysis of 705 individuals from the cemetery of St Mary and St Michael (open 1843-54) in Whitechapel, London, revealed a high prevalence of pipe smoking amongst the male population. In addition to a lower life expectancy, the smokers were found to have increased levels of skeletal evidence for lung disease when compared to the remainder of the sample. This has implications for the health, social structure and cohesion of this Irish migrant population.

Wang X; Zhao D; Shi J; Zhao CZ; Liu ZM; Lu L. Addiction research centres and the nurturing of creativity. The Chinese National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University: past, present and future. Addiction 105(9): 1525-1530, 2010. (34 refs.)

In the 25 years since drug abuse re-emerged in China in the 1980s, the National Institute of Drug Dependence (NIDD) has made many contributions to China's antidrug campaign. This present paper offers an account of the history, current status and future of drug dependence research at NIDD. NIDD was originally a research centre at Beijing Medical University, founded by the Chinese Ministry of Health to address the rapid spread of drug abuse in China. Originally, the main task of NIDD was to complete the commissions assigned by the government and university. Further developments transformed NIDD into a national research institute in the field of drug addiction that began to conduct its own research. NIDD has now created a professional team spread across several independent departments involved in neurobiological mechanisms, epidemiological surveys and monitoring, pre-clinical and clinical evaluation of new drugs ( mainly analgesic drugs and detoxification drugs) and informatics and data analysis. As a university-based research institute, NIDD's funding derives mainly from grants provided by the government and financial support from international organizations. Its past and present research has a gained NIDD a reputation with both practitioners and policy makers in the field of drug addiction. In the future, NIDD will continue to engage in various aspects of drug addiction research and will enter the field of brain function.

Weinberger MG; Spotts HE; Markos E. Joe Camel post-mortem of a brand spokesperson. International Journal of Advertising 29(3): 401-430, 2010. (68 refs.)

Dialogue about the use and impact of Joe Camel has dissipated since RJ Reynolds retired the advertising campaign in 1997. However, Joe Camel remains important for advertising because of its controversial and prominent use as a worldwide celebrity presenter. Using a historical lens equipped with before, during and after Joe Camel data, we examine Camel print advertising performance, adult brand usage, market share and advertising/promotional spending from 1986 to 2003. Our research suggests that, though Joe was an ideal celebrity endorser who attained excellent print recognition scores, his direct effect on sales in the short and longer term is unclear considering that Camel's overall market share stayed mostly the same during the Joe Camel campaign. In the end, Joe may have met his demise like any other celebrity endorser whose bad behaviour threatens to cause negative associations that could prove harmful to a brand.

Yuan NP; Eaves ER; Koss MP; Polacca M; Bletzer K; Goldman D. "Alcohol is something that been with us like a common cold": Community perceptions of American Indian drinking. Substance Use & Misuse 45(12): 1909-1929, 2010. (29 refs.)

This study examined tribal members' perspectives on alcohol, risk factors, consequences, and community responses. Focus groups were conducted with five American Indian tribes between 1997 and 2001. Participants were knowledgeable of the cultural lives of their reservation communities. Although there was agreement regarding the pervasiveness of heavy drinking, participants reported different opinions about the meaning of alcohol and appropriate intervention strategies. Three dilemmas were identified, suggesting that community ambivalence may serve as a barrier to reducing problem drinking. Implications, limitations, and future research directions are discussed. The study was funded by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
Copyright 2010, Taylor & Francis