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CORK Bibliography: Historical

146 citations. January 2008 to present

Prepared: March 2009

Agbe-Davies AS. The production and consumption of smoking pipes along the tobacco coast. IN: Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. pp. 273-304. (96 refs.)

This is one of two concluding chapters that deals primarily with methodology. It contrasts the work and discussion of clay pipes as presented in this volume, with earlier writings and views.

Allamani A. Alcoholic beverages, gender and European cultures. Substance Use & Misuse 43(8/9): 1088-1097, 2008. (26 refs.)

Societies vary on how they view alcoholic beverages and their use. These views affect use patterns. One indicator of a society's view on alcohol use may be the way it considers the relationship between women and alcoholic beverages, be it marked with moral stigma or with the relevance that women have in controlling the drinking behaviour of men. Europe has experienced substantial social changes in recent years including attitudinal and behavioural changes regarding alcohol use. This study discusses the use of alcohol in Northern and Southern Europe with an emphasis on women's alcohol use both historically and currently. Recent research on gender variations in alcohol use and its implications for treatment and prevention efforts in Europe is discussed.

Appel JM. "Physicians are not Bootleggers": The short, peculiar life of the medicinal alcohol movement. (review). Bulletin of the History of Medicine 82(2): 355-386, 2008. (101 refs.)

This essay seeks to chronicle the effort of physicians to secure the right to prescribe beer, liquor, and other alcoholic beverages to their patients for medicinal uses during the Prohibition era. A review of the medical literature and popular press from the period 1920-26 reveals that the physicians who lobbied for the right to prescribe alcohol and, ultimately, took their claim to the United States Supreme Court, were not uniformly antiprohibitionists attempting to circumvent the Eighteenth Amendment. Instead, this coalition of physician activists, led by John P. Davin and Samuel W. Lambert, included both supporters and opponents of prohibition. Their attitudes on the therapeutic value of beer and liquor also varied widely. Yet what united these men and women-and what defined their movement-was opposition to state interference with the practice of medicine and an increasing concern with the federal government's role in the regulation of their profession. The defeat of their efforts, presaging the passage of the Sheppard-Towner Act in 1921 and the extension of veterans' health benefits in 1924, marked an important step in the development of antagonism between the medical community and the federal government during the mid-twentieth century.

Babor TF; McRee BG; Kassebaum PA; Grimaldi PL; Ahmed K; Bray J. Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT): Toward a public health approach to the management of substance abuse. Substance Abuse 28(3): 7-30, 2007

Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT) is a comprehensive and integrated approach to the delivery of early intervention and treatment services through universal screening for persons with substance use disorders and those at risk. This paper describes research on the components of SBIRT conducted during the past 25 years, including the development of screening tests, clinical trials of brief interventions and implementation research. Beginning in the 1980s, concerted efforts were made in the US and at the World Health Organization to provide an evidence base for alcohol screening and brief intervention in primary health care settings. With the development of reliable and accurate screening tests for alcohol, more than a hundred clinical trials were conducted to evaluate the efficacy and cost effectiveness of alcohol screening and brief intervention in primary care, emergency departments and trauma centers. With the accumulation of positive evidence, implementation research on alcohol SBI was begun in the 1990s, followed by trials of similar methods for other substances (e.g., illicit drugs, tobacco, prescription drugs) and by national demonstration programs in the US and other countries. The results of these efforts demonstrate the cumulative benefit of translational research on health care delivery systems and substance abuse policy. That SBIRT yields short-term improvements in individuals' health is irrefutable; long-term effects on population health have not yet been demonstrated, but simulation models suggest that the benefits could be substantial.

Bachinger E; Mckee M; Gilmore A. Tobacco policies in Nazi Germany: Not as simple as it seems. Public Health 122(5): 497-505, 2008. (29 refs.)

Objective: Reluctance to develop effective tobacco control measures in Germany has been attributed to the anti-smoking stance taken by the Nazis, which has encouraged pro-smoking groups to equate tobacco control advocacy with totalitarianism. This paper reassesses the scale and nature of tobacco control in Germany during the Third Reich. Study Design and Methods: Analysis of documents and reports about the situation in Germany in the 1930s and 1940s supplemented by a review of Reich legal ordinances, party newspapers, health behaviour guidelines issued by Nazi party organizations, and interviews with expert informants. Results: While there was considerable opposition to smoking in Nazi Germany, there was no consistent Nazi policy to combat smoking, and what did exist built on preexisting policies. Although extreme measures were taken in isolated localities or by overzealous party members, there was a marked ambivalence to tobacco control at the highest levels. Many policies were contradictory; measures were often not enforced, and cigarettes were actively distributed to 'deserving' groups. Conclusion: Policies on tobacco in Nazi Germany are much more complex than is often represented by those who invoke them to condemn those seeking to reduce the burden of disease caused by smoking.

Bailey AR; Harvey DC; Brace C. Subscribed content disciplining youthful Methodist bodies in nineteenth-century Cornwall. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 97(1): 142-157, 2007. (62 refs.)

Discourses of Methodist temperance and teetotalism in Cornwall, U.K., show geographical relationships that link religious constructions of moral sanctity with specific forms of bodily performance. Understanding religious attitudes toward youthful spirituality and the histories of children informs theoretical debates concerning the embodied religious subject, citizenship, and public performance, expressed in the activities of Sunday schools and the Band of Hope (a temperance organization in which children took a pledge of total abstinence from alcohol). Methodist communities sought to regulate young people's behavior beyond the spaces of the chapel. Methodists' beliefs in autodidacticism, temperance, and social engagement have a spatiality as well as a history that demands attention.

Balachova TN; Bonner BL; Levy S. Street children in Russia: steps to prevention. International Journal of Social Work 18(1): 27-44, 2009. (72 refs.)

This article examines the historical evolution of the development of social policy toward street children in Russia and makes recommendations for prevention. The historical examination begins with the Soviet period, when statistics on social problems were not publicly known. It continues through the post-Soviet period when there was an emerging awareness about the increasing number of abused, abandoned children and children living on the streets. Etiological factors, such as child maltreatment and parental substance abuse, are then discussed. Based on these etiological factors, the article then proposes a model in which existing institutions and professionals are supported in facilitating an integrated system of primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. This includes improving child protection services and interventions to prevent children leaving their homes, early identification of children who are becoming involved in street life and a continuum of care for children who cannot return home.

Ballard J. The politics of tobacco control in Australia: International template? IN: Feldman EA; Bayer R, eds. Unfiltered: Conflicts over Tobacco Policy and Public Health. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2004. pp. 89-113. (75 refs.)

In its early history Australia the supply and marketing, as well as control efforts were closely linked to the U.S. and Britain. However, in the 1960s Australia became a site of innovation. Earlier than elsewhere smoking was defined as a health problem. Of possible relevance is that the culture of smoking in Australia was marked by a preference for pipes and roll-your-own cigarettes through the first half of the 20th century. This chapter charts the evolution of limits on advertising, the adoption of health warnings, and the restriction of smoking in public places, initiated in the early 1970s, as well as the initiation of "Quit" campaigns.

Beauvais F; Jumper-Thurman P; Burnside M. The changing patterns of drug use among American Indian students over the past thirty years. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research 15(2): 15-24, 2008. (13 refs.)

Drug use among American Indian (Al) youth continues at higher levels than those found among other youth. While the rates are higher, the patterns of increases and decreases over the past 30-year period have been similar, indicating that AI youth are part of the larger adolescent culture. There is a set of secular influences that affect the rates of drug use in both groups in the same manner. The major implication of these findings is that effective interventions in non-Al groups may also be effective among AI adolescents. Intervention activities, however, must be adapted to be culturally congruent. Despite rising concern over methamphetamine use on reservations, the data presented here indicate that, with the exception of two points in time, the rates have not increased substantially for AI youth who remain in school. School dropouts and young adults/adults may be more vulnerable to the abuse of methamphetamines and the rates of use may be higher in these groups.

Beckingham D. Geographies of drink culture in Liverpool: Lessons from the drink capital of nineteenth-century England. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 15(3): 305-313, 2008. (13 refs.)

This paper explores the faith that different agencies, state and social, placed in police data detailing drunkenness, how that data was extracted, and, as a consequence, those who would make claims based on the data. Statistical rankings both reflected and reinforced a nineteenth-century geography of drunkenness, which revealed Liverpool to be the drink capital of England; this paper reveals how that geography was propped on problematic figures, which were reworked in contemporary discourses of drink and crime, and argues for a spatial contextualization of drinking and drunkenness.

Bello DA. Opium and the Limits of Empire: Drug Prohibition in the Chinese Interior 1729-1850. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2005. (315 refs.)

The standard historical view holds that the opium trade pursued by the British along the southeastern coast of China was the major force leading to China's descent into a century-long period of social and political chaos. The opium trade is seen as the vehicle through which the Qing dynasty encountered the eastern modern economic, social, and political institutions. The author rejects this perspective. He examines how the presence of opium problems that were manifest throughout the Chinese empire, touching areas far from the southeast coast, and that the problems that arose were in many ways the product of failed prohibition efforts, and regional tensions. Poppy cultivation within the Chinese empire exceeding that imported. It is noted that poppy has always been a cultivated crop from earliest history, and that it is important to view opium as an addictive consumable, and among the first true commodities.

Berridge V. Marketing Health: Smoking and the Discourse of Public Health in Britain, 1945-2000. Oxford UK: Oxford University Press, 2007

This volume tracing the history of smoking in Britain since WWII, is not what one might expect. While noting the major landmarks in the policy-health debate vis a vis tobacco, It does not focus upon the themes which might be anticipated, such as the role of smoking in British culture, or the "intrigues" of the tobacco industry, or the duplicitous nature of the government arising from the competing demands of the Treasury and the Ministry of Health. Nor does it zero in on the anti-smoking movement. In contrast it is more a description of the evolution and emergence of the modern public health movement. initially, in the 1960s, the public health efforts were a joint initiative of multiple groups. By the 1970s the focus moved to large scale propaganda campaigns; this was followed by efforts to find safer form of smoking, after which, the government-industry-health alliance disolved. The change in attention and focus, whether the impact of passive smoking, or the need for drugs to treat dependence, are described. In the course of this discussion the changes in public health approaches are noted, i.e. the movement from services, vaccination, and dealing with health issues at the local level, to the concept of risk and centralised campaigns directed at the whole population.

Berridge V. 'Atlantic crossings' and networks in science and medicine. (commentary). Addiction 103(12): 1950-1951, 2008. (6 refs.)

This is a commentary on the article by Griffith Edwards in this issue on a trip to the U.S. in 1961 and visits with persons working in addictions.

Berridge V. The Centre for History in Public Health at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, University of London (LSHTM). Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 15(5): 429-438, 2008. (29 refs.)

This article describes the origin of the Centre for History in Public Health and the significance of its location in a leading school of public health.

Booth PG. Idiosyncratic patterns of drinking in long-term successful controlled drinkers. Addiction Research & Theory 14(1): 25-33, 2006. (14 refs.)

A historical summary is given of the clinical application of assessment and treatment procedures emanating from the new model of problem drinking that was emerging in the 1970s contemporaneously with the opening of the Windsor Clinic in Liverpool. Learning from the sometimes unexpected long-term outcomes of treated clients has provided invaluable feedback for this service. Controlled drinking is a goal choice selected by most clients at treatment entry but is a long-term successful drinking status found less commonly than abstinence. A sample of 10 clients who have been successful in maintaining controlled drinking after treatment for an average of 5 years is described. Common strategies that these individuals have adopted - including an initial period of abstinence, maintaining regular attendance at the agency, alcohol consumption levels considerably less than recommended limits and avoiding distilled spirits and solitary drinking - appear to be important.

Borden A. The History of Gay People in Alcoholics Anonymous: From the Beginning. New York: Haworth Press, 2006

This history examines the challenges AA faced as the Fellowship endeavored to become a more inclusive and cohesive community, and explicitly address the needs of gay alcoholics. The author incorporates first-person accounts to narrate events and the work of influential gay and straight AA members that touched upon key events in AA's history. The volume is divided into two historical periods. The first is the period from the founding of AA in 1935 through 1970. This section begins with a description of the recovering gay community. It then turns to the early history, beginning with the story of Barry L and the gay origins of AA's Third Tradition. Also discussed is a brief review of the early treatment of alcoholism and homosexuality. This is followed by examination of the debate in AA over meetings for gay alcoholic and includes material from interviews with members and co-founders of the first gay AA meetings. The second part of the book, entitled "Building Sober Communities" covers the period from 1970-2000. It traces developments across the country, including the history of the AA pamphlet "AA and the Gay/Lesbian Alcoholic", why a parallel AA organization for gay alcoholics formed in southern California, and strategies gay AA members developed to make their meetings simultaneously safe and public.

Campbell N. Discovering Addiction. Ann Arbor MI: University of Michigan Press, 2007

This book traces the origins of the current field of addiction medicine/addiction science. It focuses upon the efforts of the National Academy of Sciences, in the late 1930s, to identify pharmacological treatment for narcotics addiction. It draws upon both archival materials as well as interviews with those in the field. From this initial effort, the author traces the evolution of the field, from a field initially preoccupied with the "opium problem," to a field that now characterizes itself as a "brain science." As part of this discussion there is also an examination of the ethical issues that have arisen and continue to arise in respect to research, involving administration of drugs, and matters of informed consent along

Capone P; Downs E. Red clay tobacco pipes: A petrographic window into seventeenth-century economics. IN: Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. pp. 305-316. (12 refs.)

This is one of two concluding chapters that deals primarily with methodology. As does the preceding chapter it contrast the work and discussion of clay pipes as presented in this volume, with earlier writings and views. It notes that outwardly similar pipes from different areas may have very different basic construction, suggesting different points of manufacture. The historical conclusion that these similarities must denote a single point of manufacture, and an industry, which served both New England and the Chesapeake Bay, was likely to be unwarranted.

Cepeda EE; Ostrea EM. 50 years ago in The Journal of Pediatrics - Narcotic withdrawal symptoms in the newborn infant resulting from maternal addiction. (editorial). Journal of Pediatrics 152(6): 776-776, 2008. (1 refs.)

Clark D; Graham F. Morphine, cocaine, and 19th century cancer care. (editorial). Lancet Oncology 9(10): 1018-1018, 2008. (4 refs.)

Cogswell T. 'In the power of the State': Mr Anys's project and the tobacco colonies, 1626-1628. English Historical Review 123(500): 35-64, 2008. (50 refs.)

Scholars have generally assumed that the dissolution of the Virginia Company in 1624 initiated an extended period of benign royal neglect in which Virginia were able to develop as they wished. Yet the recent discovery of detailed minutes for a Whitehall committee makes abundantly clear that Charles I and his councilors had not forgotten about the colony -- and the wealth it might bring into the Exchequer. As this article will make clear, a remarkable projector, William Anys, prompted the royal government to establish a tight monopoly in 1626-1628 both on the colonial production of tobacco and on its retail sale within England. Mounting colonial opposition and the prospect of parliamentary criticism in 1628 eventually prompted Charles to abandon the scheme, but the prospect of a windfall profit from tobacco continued to haunt him and his ministers. A full understanding of the Anys episode in turn finally renders much more comprehensible the hitherto mysterious events in 1634-5 when Charles I again established a transatlantic tobacco monopoly and when the colonists in their rage physically ejected his governor from Virginia. Consequently, the first blow against the meddling Caroline regime arguably came, not in Edinburgh in 1637, but rather in James City in 1635.

Cook CCH. Alcohol, Addiction and Christian Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. (Chapter refs.)

The Bible relates that Jesus instructed his disciples to drink wine in memory of him. Some Christians therefore see alcohol as a 'good creature of God', as the Puritan Increase Mather put it. Yet other key Christian writings portray drunkenness as a facilitator of all manner of sin, and emphasize that Christians must forego certain pleasures, even if they can handle them personally, for the sake of those who cannot. This volume traces how Christian thought has evolved and influenced the views of alcohol use, alcoholism and alcohol policy. The author, an Anglican priest, a psychiatrist and addiction specialist, begins this history of Christian views on alcohol with Augustine of Hippo, who initiated a stream of Christian thought that has been influential for over 15 centuries. To Augustine, self-indulgent drunkenness, rather than drinking or alcohol per se, was to be deplored because it separated the drinker from God. In Augustine's view (which, although Cook does not say so explicitly, parallels some ideas of Alcoholics Anonymous), God has the power to free a drunkard from the compulsion to drink, but only if the drunkard humbly asks for grace. These views are compared to other influential theologians, such as Thomas Aquinas and Martin Luther) These different perspectives are used to interpreted the same Biblical account, that of Lot's drunken incest with his daughters. There is also discussion of the anti-alcohol views which arose in the 19th century temperance movement. It is suggested that within the 19th century temperance movement, Biblical interpretation often followed current opinion more than guided it. The book concludes with discussion of the important role that Christianity has to play in alcohol treatment and policy, and efforts are made to distinguish what is proposed from the "moral model." Anticipating the most probable criticism of this position, Cook adroitly differentiates Christian understandings of alcoholism from the moral model. Cook's Christian conception of the struggle against the desire to drink as simply one instance of the universal struggle of all people.

Cool HEM. Eating and Drinking in Roman Britain. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006

Drawing upon evidence from a large number of archaeological excavations, the author explores the variety of habits and regional differences that were present in Roman Britain. The archaeological sources include pottery, metalwork and environmental evidence such as animal bone and seeds, which illuminate eating and drinking custom.

Coomber R. Pusher Myths: Re-Situating the Drug Dealer. London: Free Association Books, 2006

Drug dealers are commonly described as preying on the young and innocent and spreading addiction with little care or regard for those they entangle. Likewise drug markets are commonly depicted as hierarchically organized, riddled with unscrupulous practices and chaotic violence. Few populations have been demonized to the extent of the drug dealer. This demonization is based on specific perceptions of whom and what the drug dealer is and how they function in the drug market. To examine these precepts, the author reviews recent research into the minutiae of drug dealing and drug market operations. The author concludes that common views offer overly simplistic characterizations of who the drug dealer is, what drug dealers do, and the context within which they operate, while also perpetuating nonuseful perceptions of the drug problem and how it should be resolved. Among topics discussed are the following: drug adulteration, pushing of street drugs onto the 'young and innocent', the provision of free drugs to secure new clients, and the urban myth of the Blue Star LSD Tattoo, an unsubstantiated account of supposed LSD-infused lick-and-stick tattoo transfers being given to unwitting children in local schoolyards. The author also moves beyond these particular case to explore how myths, i.e., simplistic untruths, function in modern society.

Courtwight DT. Mr. ATOD's wild ride: What do alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs have in common? The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 20(1): 105-124, 2005. (32 refs.)

All researchers agree that individuals can become intoxicated by and dependent on alcohol, tobacco, and other psychoactive drugs. But they have disagreed over whether, and to what extent, drug pathologies comprise a unitary medical problem. Most critically, does addiction have a biological common denominator? Consensus on this question has shifted back and forth. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, physicians often studied and treated various drug addictions together, working under the �inebriety� paradigm. By the mid-twentieth century the inebriety paradigm had collapsed. Tobacco and alcohol had split off, both in the medical research community and in western popular culture. This article argues that neuroscientific, genetic, epidemiological, and historical evidence helped to reunify the addiction field in the late twentieth century. A new unifying paradigm emerged, variously called chemical dependency, substance abuse, or simply ATOD-alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs.

Courtwright D. Addiction science, history, and the ATOD paradigm: A reply to Hasso Spode, Ian Tyrrell, and James Mills. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 20(1): 133-137, 2005. (0 refs.)

This special issue includes presentations made at the International Conference on Drugs and Alcohol in History held at Huron University College, London, Ontario, in 2004. The author of this paper provided the keynote address; this is his response to the several accompanying commentaries

Cross CR. Room Full of Mirrors: A biography of Jimi Hendrix. New York: Hyperion, 2005

This biography of Seattle musician, Jimi Hendrix (1942�1970) begins with a description of Hendrix's difficult, poverty-stricken childhood with alcoholic and largely absent parents, rendering it as tragic yet not without its happy, tender moments. After a stint as an army paratrooper, Hendrix knocked around playing guitar in blues clubs in the 1960s, winding up in New York and eventually London, where he established himself as a guitar god, even earning the adulation of the Beatles, before exploding onto the U.S. scene with a 1967 appearance at the Monterey Pop Festival. While replete with tales of rock star excess, based on more than 300 interviews, the author describes Hendrix as thoughtful and craving some semblance of order to his life, even as it became steeped in drug use. Hendrix's death at age 27 is viewed by many as a possible suicide, Cross makes the best case yet for it being accidental, portraying Hendrix as exhausted, who unable to sleep and likely taking nine sleeping pills without much thought.

Crowley J. The Last Modernist: Hunter S. Thompson and The White Logic. (review essay). The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 20(1): 141-153, 2005. (14 refs.)

This essay considers the work of Hunter S. Thompson, taking as the point of departure "Fear and Loathing in Los Vegas" (New York: Vintage Books, 1998. ISBN: 0679785892). This book was originally serialized in Rolling Stone and then first published as a book in 1971. A writer over a 40 year period, he was as well known for his alcohol and drug use, particularly amphetamines. The essayist sees Thompson as a self-indulgent individual, although among some he was credited as a "merciless truth-teller, who faced down life's grim absurdity without whining or flinching." There were also those who view "Fear and Loathing" as in he same class as Moby-Dick, Huckleberry Finn, and the Great Gatsby, a position which this author does not share. The case is made that Thompson is the latest in a line of modern writers, that dates back to Jack London, and followed by Ernest Hemingway, and the linking of imagination, creativity, and drinking.

Dallal D. The Tudor rose and the fleurs-de-lis: Women and iconography in seventeenth-century Dutch clay pipes found in New York City. IN: Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. pp. 207-240. (50 refs.)

This chapter is one of several that deal with Euro American context. It focuses upon clay pipes found in New York City, dating from the 17th and 18th centuries. The role of pipe manufacturing by women is considered along with the role of pipe use by women.

de Fonseca FR; Schneider M. The endogenous cannabinoid system and drug addiction: 20 years after the discovery of the CB1 receptor. (editorial). Addiction Biology 13(2): 143-146, 2008. (24 refs.)

Dempsey HA. Firewater: The Impact of the Whiskey Trade on the Blackfoot Nation. Calgary, Canada: Fifth House, 2002

This book describes the impact of "white man's water" on the Blackfoot tribe, located in the northern Plains in Canada and Montana. It begins at the point that the Hudson's Bay company transferred control of the northern territories to the new Dominion of Canada. The Hudson Bay Company had played the major role in control of whiskey in the area. With the departure of the Company a group of outlaws provided whiskey by the Thomas C Powers Company set up both trading posts and forts in this area. The five year history of the whiskey trade had a devastating effect on the Blackfoot.

Dotson JL. The history of the development of anabolic-androgenic steroids. Pediatric Clinics of North America 54(4): 761-769, 2007

The history of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) is an interesting tale that has its roots in ancient "endocrinology." More than 6000 years ago, farmers noted enhanced domestication of animals after castration. The development of AASs, and, later, their artificial synthesis, have remained a hot topic in scientific research and pharmaceuticals. Over the years, AASs have been used as a proposed treatment for a wide variety of ailments, despite deleterious side effects. Unfortunately, they have been, and still are, abused by body builders, athletes, and teens.

Drooker PB. Pipes, leadership, and interregional interaction in protohistoric Midwestern and Northeastern North America. IN: Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. pp. 73-124. (159 refs.)

This chapter is one of several that address protohistoric period, with consideration of the first contacts between Native Americans and Europeans. The chapter provides a summary of pipe discoveries in the Great Lake regions, the upper Mississippi Valley and Northeast. The chapter highlights the role pipes played in the interactions of these disparate cultures, the rituals involved, and the use of pipes to mediate interactions by indicating status, being a ritual tool, and serving as gifts.

Duval S; Jacobs DR; Barber C; Lando HA; Steffen LM; Arnett DK et al. Trends in cigarette smoking: The Minnesota Heart Survey, 1980-1982 through 2000-2002. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 10(5): 827-832, 2008. (13 refs.)

This paper reports population-based secular trends in smoking prevalence and tobacco exposure among smokers. The Minnesota Heart Survey (MHS) assessed smoking in probability samples in the seven-county Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area. Five surveys were conducted in 1980-1982, 1985-1987, 1990-1992, 1995-1997, and 20002002 using similar sampling strategies and consistent protocols. Participants were metropolitan area residents of Minnesota, aged 25-74 years, with the addition of 75-84-year-olds in the last three surveys. In men, age-adjusted self-reported prevalence of current smoking steadily declined from 32.9% in 1980-1982, to 230/o in 1995-1997, and to 20.6% in 2000-2002. In women, self-reported smoking was 31.8% in 1980-1982, 18.5% in 1995-1997, and 19.5% in the latest survey. Age-adjusted self-reported quantity of cigarettes consumed among smokers declined over the same period. Changes from 1995-1997 to 2000-2002 were not significant. Compared with Whites, Black participants had higher levels of smoking and later onset of the decline in smoking prevalence. A decline in smoking prevalence seems to have leveled off or reversed between the two most recent survey periods (1995-1997 through 2000-2002). Focus on smoking cessation should continue, especially in the subpopulation that smokes more than the majority.

Edman J. A crutch for cripples or a shield for the endangered: The temporary decline in compulsory care within Swedish alcohol treatment during the 1970s. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 211-240. (96 refs.)

Sweden has had compulsory alcohol treatment for a hundred years. In 2004, this practice was reaffirmed. However, there was a point in the 1970s, when the numbers of those who were compelled to enter alcohol treatment dropped markedly, and there was discussion of ceasing mandatory entry into treatment. This article discusses the events in the 1970s which led to that policy being seriously considered. There were no readily apparent reasons for this drop. This chapter deals with the potential influences of these changes and the political process that led to reform of the compulsory care legislation. A significant factor is the nature of the broader social debate centered on paternalism and a recognition that social misery was come to be seen as a cause, rather than a consequence of alcohol abuse.

Edman J; Hamran O. From hard labor to unemployment: The crisis of work policy within the treatment of alcohol abusers in Sweden and Norway during the 1970s/. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 185-210. (35 refs.)

From their earliest days the work performed by inmates/patients was central to maintaining the facilities providing care for alcohol abusers in both Sweden and Norway, a practice which continued until the 1970s, when it disappeared over a few years period. This chapter examines the changes which accompanied this and in essence represents a change in how those receiving care were declared "sick" and became "clients" and how managing leisure time was seen as equally important as learning to work. The experience of both Sweden and Norway are examined.

Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph no. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. (Chapter refs.)

The goal of this volume is to describe the character and dynamics of the alcohol and drug treatment systems in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. How and why have new ideas and institutions emerged during its history? Who have been the actors and what have been the structures behind changes or resistance to change? What can explain the continuities and the reforms? Instead of describing the long national trajectories, the book presents thirteen snapshots from the history of treatment in the five Nordic countries. The settings described in these articles vary from countryside sanatoriums for the voluntary treatment of middle-class alcoholics in late 19th century Sweden, to large, prison-like institutions in all the Nordic countries, used for compulsory treatment emphasising work and moral edification, to the contemporary public injecting rooms in the city of Oslo. The actors include entrepreneurs, doctors, jurists, temperance activists, bureaucrats and social reformists. These snapshots are framed by an introductory chapter and a concluding article, drawing some general conclusions about the development of alcohol and drug treatment in the Nordic countries. Within the frame of the gradually developing Nordic welfare states, alcohol and drug treatment has mostly consisted of measures directed towards the poor, marginal groups of society - with the exception of the earliest history and also contemporary Iceland. The history of alcohol and drug treatment can thus be read as one expression of Nordic inclusion and exclusion, illustrated both by the comparatively large size of the treatment system, and by the strict demands on conformity within the frame of the ideally alcohol- and drug-free society. The development during the last decades, with the acceptance of harm-reduction and a new tolerance for the continuing use of substances introduces something thoroughly new in Nordic contexts. Will it also contribute to a true reformulation of the role of treatment?

Edman J; Stenius K. From sanatoriums to public injection rooms. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 339-361. (19 refs.)

The system of treatment in the Nordic countries has evolved from the Swedish sanatoriums of the 1880s that were pleasant country villas to Norwegian public injection rooms in the 21st century. This chapter reviews the evolution of treatment approaches. It is noted that there significant differences and also similarities to somatic and psychiatric care. This chapter outlines the history of Nordic treatment patterns over the 120 year period, with attention to the significant institutional structures and actors involved. This summary chapter endeavors to address what kinds of problems treatment efforts are intended to address. In the earliest efforts, the emphasis is in the use of work as a therapeutic approach and the capacity to work a therapeutic goal. The impact of the temperance movements and their disappearance as a major influence is discussed, as is the approach to treatment with the rise of the welfare state. It was in the late 1960s and 1970s that alcohol and drug abusers gained a voice in influencing treatment. Most recently there has been the rise of harm reduction approaches and drug substitution therapies which is seemingly at odds with the historical zero tolerance policy is noted.

Edwards G. Visiting America: Notes from an alcohol-focused study tour made in 1961. Addiction 103(12): 1939-1947, 2008. (32 refs.)

This paper has as its focus a study tour made by the author in 1961. Diary notes are used to capture a historical moment in the evolution of alcohol studies. The paper will argue for the continuing value today of such experiences in support of career development and the building of 'the field'. Diary notes and personal recollection. The United States was at the time more active than the United Kingdom in its response to alcohol problems. There was, however, a disjunction between the elite American research world and the world of action, which was not informed greatly by research. For the most part, treatment services and prevention strategies seemed driven by opinion rather than by evidence. But at the level of serious scientific endeavour there was opportunity to meet influential figures including Seldon Bacon, Morris Chafetz, Milton Gross, Ebbe Curtis Hoff, Harris Isbell, E. M. Jellinek, Mark Keller, Benjamin Kissen, Robert Strauss, Wolf Schmidt and Abraham Wikler, who generously made their time available. These diary notes provide a snapshot of a field of endeavour at a critical stage of transition from uninformed assumptions towards establishment of a research base which can inform public action. The visit was of tangible value to the visitor in several different identified ways. Such an experience is inevitably time-bound and personal, but there are general conclusions to be drawn as to the benefits which will be derived from early travel opportunities in a field such as alcohol studies, which is all too easily culture-bound in its horizons and assumptions. Alcohol science needs to be more reflective on its history and the mechanisms that help to make it happen.

Eriksen S. From gold cure to antabuse. Danish treatment traditions in a liberal drinking culture. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 51-79. (45 refs.)

This chapter examines the evolution of treatment approaches for alcohol problems in Denmark. It begins with a description of "moral treatment" which was the norm in the 1890s, initiated by temperance doctors and supported by the temperance movement. In the wake of the moral treatment paradigm, the dominant model involved discipline, internment and sterilization of degenerates and anti-social people in general, and which came to include those we would now term alcoholics. At the same time, mainline physicians involved in care of alcoholics were beginning to experiment with "chemical cures" particularly the Keeley gold cure. Another treatment approach that is described is the asylums, many of which had a evangelical Christian base, and which emerged in the last decade of he 1800s. While not treatment per se, in 1914 there were early efforts to place limits on the sale and serving of alcohol. The efforts in Denmark are compared to events in the US as well as the other Nordic countries.

Fahey D. Temperance Internationalism: Guy Hayler and the World Prohibition Federation. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 20(2): 247-275, 2006. (89 refs.)

The World Prohibition Federation, organized in 1909, and the "International Record", published from 1917 to 1968, sought to internationalize the temperance movement by collecting and disseminating anti-drink news from around the globe. The Federation was based in London, and most of its activists were English-speakers. A British reformer named Guy Hayler served as its honorary president for thirty years and edited the "International Record" until his death in 1943. The Federation emphasized that prohibitionists comprised a moral community, united regardless of race, religion, nationality, or politics. Poorly funded, the Federation had difficulty competing with the World League against Alcoholism after the Anti-Saloon League of America organized this rival propaganda society in 1919.

Faroque A. An investigation into the demand for alcoholic beverages in Canada: A choice between the almost ideal and the Rotterdam models. Applied Economics 40(16): 2045-2054, 2008. (25 refs.)

In this article I investigate the historical pattern of interactions in the demand for three categories of alcoholic beverages in Canada, using both the differential Almost Ideal and the differential Rotterdam demand systems. I evaluate these models based on several decision criteria including model encompassment (based on the J-test), structural stability, conformity with demand theory and the credibility of the estimated price and income responses, in an attempt to determine which of these models is better suited for explaining the demand for alcoholic beverages. The results reveal that both models satisfy the restrictions of demand theory and of structural stability but the Rotterdam model is preferable on grounds of the remaining two criteria.

Feige C; Miron JA. The opium wars, opium legalization and opium consumption in China. Applied Economics Letters 15(12): 911-913, 2008. (7 refs.)

The effect of drug prohibition on drug consumption is a critical issue in debates over drug policy. One episode that provides information on the consumption-reducing efffect of drug prohibition is the Chinese legalization of opium in 1858. In this paper we examine the impact of China's opium legalization on the quantity and price of British opium exports from India to China during the nineteenth century. We find little evidence that legalization increased exports or decreased price. Thus, the evidence suggests China's opium prohibition had a minimal impact on opium consumption.

Feldman EA; Bayer R, eds. Unfiltered: Conflicts over Tobacco Policy and Public Health. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2004. (Chapter refs.)

This edited volume considers the issue of tobacco control and the related ethical and public health issues. It examines these issues by drawing upon the experience of different countries, with chapters devoted to the United States, Japan, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Denmark, as well as the European Union. It traces the emergence and unfolding of tobacco control policy in these countries, with special attention to three major issues: taxation, advertising and environmental tobacco smoke, and highligting the cross-cultural differences. The final three chapters are explicitly comparative, seeking to make cross-cultural and cross-national assessments, and to draw out some explanatory lessons for international tobacco control. The chapter on Australia is of note, as Australia is often cites as the most enlighted country in respect to tobacco contol and tobacco policy. In reviewing events over a half-century, the interplay of factors, from sporting organizations to social movements, as well as differences in various Australian states is highlighted.

Feldman EA; Bayer R. Introduction: Liberal states, public health and the tobacco question. IN: Feldman EA; Bayer R, eds. Unfiltered: Conflicts over Tobacco Policy and Public Health. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2004. pp. 1-7. (6 refs.)

This chapter discusses the structure and goals of the book. Among the questions the book endeavors to answer are: How does one understand the similarites and differences between industrialized countries? How does tobacco control differ in countries in which the state has a major ownership in tobacco industry? How deeply do control policies reflect national differences in cultural traditions? It also elaborates on the challenges in liberal democracies facing public health initiatives around tobacco control , namely the relationship between personal preferences, individual benefit, and the common good. The central public health/control approaches � restriction of smoking in public places, taxing tobacco products � are also described.

Fletcher HB. Gender and the American Temperance Movement of the Nineteenth Century. New York: Routledge, 2007

During the nineteenth century, the American temperance movement underwent a visible, shift in its leadership. It evolved from a male-led movement to one dominated by the women. However, this transition of leadership masked the complexity and diversity of the temperance movement. This book posits two iconic figures in the temperance efforts -- the self-made man and the crusading woman. The author shows how too, the temperance movement encompassed the debates on race and gender in a shifting political and cultural landscape.

Fontana A; Rosenheck R. Treatment-seeking veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan: Comparison with veterans of previous wars. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 196(7): 513-521, 2008. (11 refs.)

Differences in the characteristics and mental health needs of veterans of the Iraq/Afghanistan war when compared with those of veterans who served in the Persian Gulf war and in the Vietnam war may have important implications for Veterans Affairs (VA) program and treatment planning. Subjects were drawn from administrative data bases of veterans who sought treatment from specialized VA programs for treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Current Iraq/Afghanistan veterans were compared with 4 samples of outpatient and inpatient Persian Gulf and Vietnam veterans whose admission to treatment was either contemporaneous or noncontemporaneous with their admission. A series of analyses of covariance was used hierachically to control for program site and age. In analyses of contemporaneous veterans uncontrolled for age, Iraq/Afghanistan veterans differed most notably from Vietnam veterans by being younger, more likely to be female, less likely to be either married or separated/divorced, more often working, less likely to have ever been incarcerated, and less likely to report exposure to atrocities in the military. Regarding clinical status, Iraq/Afghanistan veterans were less often diagnosed with substance abuse disorders, manifested more violent behavior, and had lower rates of VA disibility compensation because of PTSD. Differences are more muted in comparisons with Persian Gulf veterans, particularly in those involving noncontemporaneous samples, or those that controlled for age differences. Among recent war veterans with PTSD, social functioning has largely been left intact. There is a window of opportunity, therefore, for developing and focusing on treatment interventions that emphasize the preservation of these social assets.

Foxcroft L. The Making of Addiction. The 'use and Abuse' of Opium in Nineteenth Century Britain. London: Ashgate Publishing, 2007

This book considers the influences that shaped the creation and the various interpretations of addiction as a disease, addiction to opiates in particular. It reviews the treatments, regimes, and attitudes on the newly emerging pathological entity and a form of 'moral insanity' during the nineteenth century. The source material includes letters and diaries of literary figures, artists and politicians, as well an those not well known. Part 1 The Cultural History of Addiction in 19th-century Britain, describes the experience of addiction in the early-19th century, understanding of the condition, and the influences of China. Part 2 deals with the medical history during the period, the medical enquiries of medicine into addiction, and the theories of its origins.

French LA. Alcohol and other drug addictions among Native Americans: The movement toward tribal-centric treatment programs. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 22(1): 81-91, 2004

Native Americans have the highest addiction rate of any group in the United States as well as one of the most difficult treatment records. Part of the problem is a long history of contravening U.S. Indian policies that contributed greatly to the phenomenon known as psychocultural marginality. In addition to alcoholism, notably fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol effect (FAE), inhalation abuse is also rampant among this population. Incarceration, and not treatment, has long been the official federal reaction merely exacerbating these problems. It has only been since the mid-1980s that a cultural perspective has been taken toward Native American addiction. Here, the premise is that one needs to foster a positive cultural ethnic identity before one can effectively address the root causes of addiction.

Frick JW. Theatre, Culture and Temperance Reform in Nineteenth-Century America. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003. (295 refs.)

Nineteeenth century America witnessed a full-blown campaign against alcohol, which, while little appreciated now, was more central than either the abolition of women's sufferage movements. For most of the century prohibition was a national cause. An integral part of the various temperence efforts was theatrical performance, conducted professionally in large cities and by amateur companies in small towns, used to help spread the word. Through these productions the problems associated with alcohol were dramatized. This author traces these works from the 1830s through the early 20th century. The author also explores the cultural forces, which lay behind prohibition, the progressive trends in literature and art.

Frontline, Public Broadcasting Service. Thirty years of America's drug war: A chronology frontline. IN: Huggins LE, ed. Drug War Deadlock: The Policy Battle Continues. Stanford CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2005. pp. 17-32. (0 refs.)

This is one of three chapters in Part I that provide background on current drug policy in the U.S. and the differing points of view it elicits. It is a thirty year calendar of key events in the U.S. war on drugs. It includes not only policy initiatives, such as the declaration of the war on drugs by President Nixon in a press conference in June, 1971, but also first initiatives to provide methadone treatment to those in prison, to major events in the drug trade.

Gilmore A; McKee M. Tobacco-control policy in the European Union. IN: Feldman EA; Bayer R, eds. Unfiltered: Conflicts over Tobacco Policy and Public Health. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2004. pp. 219-254. (195 refs.)

As independent from individual counties, this chapter reviews tobacco control policy in the European Union. It discusses the history of the EU in tobacco control, and also discusses the apparent contradiction inasmuch as the EU also provides subsidies to farmers' growing tobacco in the form of agriculture subsidies. The chapter also addresses tax policy, product labeling and regulation, and environmental smoke.

Goode E. Moral panics and disproportionality: The case of LSD use in the sixties. Deviant Behavior 29(6): 533-543, 2008. (13 refs.)

Critics of the moral panic dismiss this extremely useful, often-cited, and durable concept on the basis of inapplicable criteria. Drawing on the example of LSD use in the sixties, these critics mistakenly assume that the disaster analogy is apt, insisting that the threat to society, and society's responses, be very much like victims trapped in a burning building. In addition to the fact that the introduction of a new and potentially harmful drug into a society does not entail an on-the-spot threat or reaction, the natural disaster does not typically involve a folk devil or deviant. But the supposed threat of LSD use did entail sensitization, stereotyping, exaggeration, the rush to judgment, sensational anecdotes, and bogus claims. The moral panic notion continues to illuminate social processes and deserves to remain in the sociologist's conceptual tool-box.

Gutzke DW; Fahey DM; Greenaway J. Symposium. Brian Harrison's "Drink and the Victorians". The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 18: 85-93, 2003. (6 refs.)

This article with 3 contributors was written on the occassion of the 30th anniversary of the publication of "Drink and the Victorians", seen as a milestone, marking the beginning of academic study of alcohol in Britain. Each of the contributors considers the impact of this book, the extent to which it promoted and molded later academic study on the topic.

Guzman G. Hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico: An overview. Economic Botany 62(3): 404-412, 2008. (37 refs.)

Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview. Psilocybe, with 53 known hallucinogenic species in Mexico, is the most important and diverse group of sacred mushrooms used by Mexican indigenous cultures. Psilocybe caerulescens, known by the present-day Nahuatl Indians as teotlaquilnanacatl, is hypothesized to be the ceremonially-used teonanacatl mushroom cited by Sahagan in the 16th century, the true identity of which has remained obscure for centuries. Correcting a widely disseminated error derived from early published information on Mexican hallucinogenic mushrooms, emphasis is placed on the fact that Panaeolus species have never been used traditionally in Mexico. Reports of the use of species of Amanita, Clavaria, Conocybe, Cordyceps, Dictyophora, Elaphomyces, Gomphus, Lycoperdon, Psathyrella, and Stropharia as sacred or narcotic mushrooms are discussed. A brief history of the discovery of hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico is presented, as well as notes on their taxonomy, distribution, and traditional use in Mexico.

Hamran O. "You take a sick man and put him in hospital": Treatment of excessive drinkers in Norway in the 1930s. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 81-96. (18 refs.)

This chapter describes the treatment of those with alcohol problems in Norway during the 1930s. The move from viewing excess alcohol use as a moral issue to a health issue is often seen as first occurring in this decade. The first mention of alcoholism in Norway is tied to the establishment of Temperance Boards in a 1932 Act. This article examines some parts of his act, explores the Temperance Boards and the functions they were to serve, and the sort of problems they were to solve. It also examines the nature of therapy provided at the Orje health resort, the Norwegian Sea alcoholic treatment centre and its evolution during the course of the decade which was rooted in the same ideas as the Temperance Board. In this decade there was a clear medicalization of excessive drinking.

Hauge R. On the demise of the Norwegian Vagrancy Act. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 169-184. (24 refs.)

The Norwegian Vagrancy Act was enacted in 1900 to deal with two groups considered particularly problematic and morally wanting -- the heavy drinking, often unemployed found in the towns and cities and the tramps and gypsies of the country. They were often in and out of prison; but no way to remove them from society for sufficient periods to provide the opportunity for them to wend their ways. This Act included provisions allowing for these individuals to be detained at institutions for forced labour for lengthy periods. The Act also included fines for public drunkeness, but third-time offenders could be sent to prison. This legislation was less concerned with care of troubled persons, than with the protection of the larger society. This chapter describes the evolution of this Act, how it was implemented and understood, until its eventually being overturned at the end of the 1950s.

Hedrich D; Pirona A; Wiessing L. From margin to mainstream: The evolution of harm reduction responses to problem drug use in Europe. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 15(6): 503-517, 2008. (27 refs.)

Since the 1960s, illicit drug use in Europe has been marked by the serious health consequences of drug injecting, in particular of heroin. The present article discusses the development of two major harm reduction interventions conducted in Europe to reduce heroin injection and its detrimental consequences, namely opioid substitution treatment and needle exchange programmes. Data collected by the EMCDDA, the specialized EU drug monitoring agency, show that these interventions have progressively become part of the common response in Europe for reducing problems related to drug injecting. The data illustrate the emergence in the mid-1980s of these measures as 'new' public health responses to injecting drugs and HIV/AIDS, a process that was preceded by intensive discussions between stakeholders at national and local level. Data also indicate that the scaling up of the measures was not immediate, but happened only about a decade later, during the 1990sand predominantly in the Western part of the European region. While current social, cultural and legal responses to drug use in EU Member States remain diverse, a recent assessment of national priorities and approaches in preventing infectious diseases and drug-related deaths showed a considerable trend towards a convergence of policies across the whole region. This is discussed in relation to strategic guidance and target-oriented action plans that emerged at the level of the European Union since the late 1990s, concluding that European policy consensus was mediated by EU guidance, while not originating from it.

Heley J. Rounds, Range Rovers and rurality: The drinking geographies of a New Squirearchy. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 15(3): 315-321, 2008. (12 refs.)

In an article detailing the 'cultural terrain' of the village inn, Maye, Ilbery, and Kneafsey (2005) recently argued for the need of more culturally informed geographical work on the changing nature of the public house. A possible avenue of investigation, it is suggested, is a consideration of how various consumers make 'sense' of their pubs, and how different practises and meanings overlay each other within this quintessentially rural setting. In undertaking such studies, notions of heterogeneous association and 'lifescape' may be usefully employed in shedding light on the peculiar mixture of people, objects and interactions within this space. Drawing upon ethnographic research undertaken in a Bedfordshire pub, the 'Six Tuns', this paper will consider a collective labelled the 'New Squirearchy'; a fraction of local residents who may be loosely defined through their apparent efforts to recreate the perceived roles and lifestyle of the archetypal English country gentleman. Here it is argued that the public house acts as a key space in which this identity is overtly negotiated and played out, and one that is appropriated within the midst of other pub-dwellers by these 'New Squires'.

Heron C. Booze: A Distilled History. Toronto: Between the Lines Press, 2003

This book by a Canadian historian reviews the history of alcohol's role in Canadian society and culture. It begins with the introduction of alcohol in North America through European contacts with native peoples, and then traces the role in drinking in early settler life, the emerging colonies, and through the emergence of an industrialized society. It also provides a review of the legal responses to alcohol use, systems of state control of alcohol, and prohibition efforts, as well as the development of the construct of alcoholism and treatment. Also of note is the discussion of the diverse drinking cultures and diverse perceptions by social class of what constitutes acceptable drinking practices and locations for drinking.

Herring R; Berridge V; Thom B. Binge drinking today: Learning lessons from the past. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 15(5): 475-486, 2008. (39 refs.)

Binge drinking is a matter of current social, media and political concern. Within the current debates binge drinking is sometimes portrayed as a recent phenomenon, but in fact it has a history and concern about binge drinking is not new. This paper sets the phenomenon in its historical context by examining how the nature and definition of binge drinking has changed over time. Aims: The overall aim is to draw lessons for policy through the interaction of social science and historical perspectives. Methods: A literature review was conducted and a workshop brought together researchers, policy makers and practitioners to consider current perceptions of binge drinking, current responses and possible future approaches. Findings: From this study it is evident that that the meaning ascribed to the term 'binge drinking' has changed over time but further research is required to establish quite how and why this shift came about. Parallels can be drawn between the current concerns about 'binge drinking' and those about the 'gin craze' of the eighteenth century: they are both focused on public drunkenness, urban locations and women's drinking and the media has played a pivotal role in shaping the response to the 'crisis'.

Hickman TA. The Secret Leprosy of Modern Days: Narcotic Addiction and Cultural Crisis in the United States, 1870-1920. Amherst MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007

This book re-examines the notions of addiction in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The case is made that the construct of addiction is as much cultural as it is medical/scientific. It demonstrates how the fears and anxieties about addiction were related to other preoccupations and fears about a changing world. It speaks to the notions of class, race and gender, and how the view of "addict as patient" evolved into the view of "addict as criminal," the latter marked by the passage of the Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914, a view which has prevailed through the rest of the century.

Hodgins DC. What we see depends mainly on what we look for (John Lubbock, British Anthropologist, 1834-1913). (editorial). Addiction 103(7): 1118-1119, 2008. (8 refs.)

Holder HD. Stranger in a strange land: Insights from a visit to North America by a British student. (commentary). Addiction 103(12): 1499-1502, 2008. (1 refs.)

This is a commentary on the article by Griffith Edwards in this issue on a trip to the U.S. in 1961 and visits with persons working in addictions.

Irwin JD. Stone pipes of the southern coastal region of North Carolina: Smoke, ritual, and contact. IN: Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. pp. 43-72. (42 refs.)

This is one of two chapters dealing with prehistoric case studies, focusing on the late Woodland period, and artifacts from coastal North Carolina. Attention is directed to the use of pipes in facilitating social interactions, especially in the context of interregional trade in the mid-Atlantic region.

Jason L; Olson B; Foli K, eds. Rescued Lives: The Oxford House Approach to Substance Abuse. London: Routledge, 2008

Oxford Houses might be considered group homes, with traditions and structure for those who have been involved in substance abuse treatment. This book describes the history of Oxford Houses, their role in recovery, and how the Oxford House approach evolved, its expansion nationally, and data on outcome for those in residence. It also explains how it functions, the nine traditions of Oxford House and describes the process of a resident's entrance and assimilation. Also addressed is the success of Oxford House in incorporating under-served and marginalized populations, and also, its impact on women, children and families.

Johnson B. Developments in maintenance treatment policy and practice in Sweden 1987-2006. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 259-287. (55 refs.)

Within Sweden there are regional differences in the use of drug substitution/maintenance therapy. Over the past twenty years there have been dramatic changes in the attitudes toward treatment. Rather than the discussion about whether such treatment ought to be provided, the concerns center upon access to care, and regulation. The driving force in the change is seen as the changing patters of drug use, specifically increasing heroin use and an accompanying rise in drug-related mortality. Treatment practices are also described, addressing the use of methadone and buprenorphine, as well as a general greater interest in evidence-based practice.

Kadel B. The pub and the Irish nation. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 18: 69-84, 2003. (24 refs.)

This article examines the movement for prohibition in Ireland within the context of nationalist politics and indpendence from Great Britain. The Irish who fought efforts to establish control of the pubs, tied these efforts as another example of victimization by the British.

Kalina K. Developing the system of drug services in the Czech Republic. Journal of Drug Issues 37(1): 181-204, 2007. (50 refs.)

This paper begins with a brief overview of the status of Czech services for alcohol and drug users as they existed before 1990 (during the communist era). Particular attention is directed to the prominent figure of Jaroslav Sk�la and the treatment and training systems he pioneered. The second section of the paper concentrates on how the system of services evolved during the 1990s, after the fall of communism, and identifies the main factors affecting this development (the ongoing reform of health care, formation of the nongovernmental nonprofit sector, emergence of a national drug policy, and the reform of social services). The paper also describes characteristics of the current system of services for legal and illegal drug users. Included here are descriptions of the types of care available (low threshold services, ambulatory and hospital care, therapeutic communities, aftercare, and substitution programs), and an overview of their utilization. Specific features and weak points in the present system are addressed in broad terms. Financing and costs are addressed, with particular attention being paid to public grants at governmental, regional, and municipal levels. The paper also pays attention to the infrastructure of the system of services (coordination, training and education, quality assurance, etc.) as well as to research needs, training and quality assurance, and the effectiveness and efficiency of services based on sound financing, in order to promote innovative programs of care and to adjust existing services to the actual needs of the target population.

Kirby D; Luckins T, eds. Dining on Turtles: Food Feasts and Drinking in History. Melbourne: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. (Chapter refs.)

The volume with 12 chapter and 13 contributors, is organized into 3 sections. Part I provides an overview of the importance of food and drink throughout history. Part II focuses upon fasting, ranging from the banquets of ancient Rome, and the feasts in Renaissance Italy, to the delicacies that accompanied the British's northern American fur trade, to the Olympic games staged in Melbourne. Part III deals with sites of food and drinking and their role in forging community, focusing upon different locales as the tavern in early France to the British pub and the early industrial society.

Kleber HD. Methadone maintenance 4 decades later: Thousands of lives saved but still controversial. Journal of the American Medical Association 300(19): 2303-2305, 2008. (14 refs.)

This article considers the impact of the publication of "A Medical Treatment for Diacetylmorphine (Heroin) Addiction: A Clinical Trial With Methadone Hydrochloride" by Vincent P. Dole, MD, and Marie Nyswander, MD JAMA. 1965;193(8):646-650. The effects of this article are best understood by knowing what preceded it. The current scientific consensus is that opioid dependence is a chronic and severe medical disorder, and withdrawal alone is usually followed by rapid relapse. A century ago, however, withdrawal was often considered adequate to treat narcotic addiction, with methods used often more dangerous than withdrawal. Individuals who relapsed were viewed as doing so out of choice rather than necessity. Forty years after the last maintenance clinics closed, the 1965 article by Dole and Nyswander landed with a bang.1 Dole, an internist, believed narcotic addiction was a metabolic disease, not very different from diabetes; Nyswander, a psychiatrist, had frustrating years of treating individuals with narcotic addiction with psychotherapy only to see them relapse. Their study, conducted in New York City first at the Rockefeller Institute and later moving to Manhattan General Hospital, included 22 participants with heroin addiction. One year later, Dole et al reported empirical data on the induced narcotic blockade. Long-term follow-up studies later confirmed that therapeutic success on a larger scale was possible. The author reviews the changes in attitudes and practice since the original article.

Kneale J; French S. Mapping alcohol: Health, policy and the geographies of problem drinking in Britain. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 15(3): 233-249, 2008. (41 refs.)

While parallels can be drawn between contemporary problem drinking in Britain and apparently similar cases from the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, little attention has been paid to the ways in which drink is represented as a spatial problem. Closer analysis reveals that the mapping of 'clusters' of alcohol outlets or trouble spots has waxed and waned over the last hundred and fifty years, and that the appearance, disappearance and re-emergence of the cluster in policy discussions owes a good deal to changing understandings of the nature of public drinking. Both temperance and contemporary epidemiological approaches favour the cluster because they assume that the supply of alcohol lies at the root of the problems seen to be associated with drink, and mapping clusters makes this supply visible. In contrast the disease theory of alcoholism favours individual rather than social causes, and has little use for maps of clusters; as a consequence the cluster seems to disappear from discussions in the middle years of the twentieth century. The paper concludes that the history of problem drinking demonstrates the need to pay closer attention to changing constructions of drink as problem and the need for a more sophisticated understanding of the history of medicine and public health. It also makes clear the need to look beyond the State and the market as spaces in which the risks of alcohol are calculated.

Knowlton R; Berridge V. Constructive imperialism and sobriety: Evidence of alcoholism among candidates for the British Colonial Service from 1898-1904. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 15(5): 439-450, 2008. (20 refs.)

Aims: To study what was termed 'alcoholism' among candidates for the British Colonial Service from 1898-1904 and how it was identified by comparison with specialist literature of the time: and to analyse the results of such medical examinations for associations between evidence of alcoholism and other variables. Setting: All 3846 medical examinations on candidates for the British Colonial Service from August 1898 to July 1904. Findings: The term 'alcoholism' was used in the examination although 'inebriety' was the more usual specialist term at the time. Physical symptomology was used for the purposes of identification. There were 79 candidates (2%) who exhibited evidence of alcoholism, the predominant indicators being the smell of liquor on the breath (68%), facial congestion (27%), tremors (23%), a furred tongue (14%), and a tremulous tongue (8%). All of the candidates with evidence of alcoholism (CWA) were males, significantly older than non-CWAs and more likely to be rejected from the Colonial Service. Multiple logistic regression analyses found that a history of syphilis and a history of having lived in the tropics were associated with being a CWA. Conclusions: The context of the examination and the terminology used showed little influence on colonial medicine from the specialist inebriety field.The use of the term 'alcoholism' predates its more general use in British medicine and psychiatry. The low prevalence of evidence of 'alcoholism' among candidates for the Colonial Service could be the result of one of more of the following: temperance movements, which made abstinence more respectable at the higher levels of English society; the overall labour skills needed for these colonial positions and the higher economic class of applicants; self-selection out of colonial work by heavy drinkers realizing that their condition would not be conducive to tropical life; or lack of motivation to pursue such careers. The syphilis finding supports testimony in the Physical Deterioration Report of 1904 that linked alcoholism and syphilis. The association between having lived in the tropics and evidence of alcoholism supports contemporary concern over the effect of the tropical climate on the health of those who did not practice moderation in drink.

Landman A; Cortese DK; Glantz S. Tobacco industry sociological programs to influence public beliefs about smoking. (review). Social Science & Medicine 66(4): 970-981, 2008. (119 refs.)

The multinational tobacco companies responded to arguments about the social costs of smoking and hazards of secondhand smoke by quietly implementing the Social Costs/Social Values project (1979-1989), which relied upon the knowledge and authoritative power of social scientists to construct an alternate cultural repertoire of smoking. Social scientists created and disseminated non-health based, pro-tobacco arguments without fully acknowledging their relationship with the industry. After the US Surgeon General concluded that nicotine was addictive in 1988, the industry responded by forming "Associates for Research in the Science of Enjoyment" (c. 1988-1999), whose members toured the world promoting the health benefits of the use of legal substances, including tobacco, for stress relief and relaxation, without acknowledging the industry's role. In this paper we draw on previously secret tobacco industry documents, now available on the Internet to show how both of these programs utilized academic sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists, psychologists, philosophers and economists, and allowed the industry to develop and widely disseminate friendly research through credible channels. Strategies included creating favorable surveys and opinions, infusing them into the lay press and media through press releases, articles and conferences, publishing, promoting and disseminating books, commissioning and placing favorable book reviews, providing media training for book authors and organizing media tours. These programs allowed the tobacco industry to affect public and academic discourse on the social acceptability of smoking.

Lewis M. Access to saloons, wet voter turnout, and statewide Prohibition referenda, 1907-1919. Social Science History 32(3): 373-404, 2008. (63 refs.)

When explaining the success of the Prohibition movement in the United States between 1900 and 1920, scholars argue that prohibitionists were able both to tap into the distrust of many rural, native-born, evangelical Protestants toward modern urban life and to bring together disparate groups of reformers around one goal: the elimination of the saloon. Furthermore, localized campaigns resulting in the elimination of saloons from many rural areas kept this base of voters energized, ultimately leading to impressive dry turnouts in statewide Prohibition referenda. This study extends and amplifies these findings through art analysis of three sets of factors on voting outcomes: the percentage of various demographic groups (urban, immigratn, and ritualistic religious populations) residing in a county; the distance of each county to saloons; the presence or absence of producers of alcohol in a county. Results of ordinary least-squares regression demonstrate that access to saloons and the percentage of immigrant and ritualistic church members in a. county are the variables that most influence tire results of Prohibition referenda. Furthermore, unlike what previous research has demonstrated, these variables have their greatest influence by affecting met turnout rates.

Lu L; Wang X. Drug addiction in China. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Addiction Reviews 2008 1141: 304-317, 2008. (107 refs.)

Drug addiction in China began with the importation of Indian opium by the British in the 16th century and brought severe social and health problems. While drug abuse abated following the establishment of People's Republic of China, modernization and Westernization in the 1980s led to the reemergence of this problem. Drug abuse in China became epidemic, facilitating the spread of HIV/AIDS. The Chinese government has made great efforts to address these problems, focusing both on treatments of drug addiction and on harm-reduction programs. Although the new trends of drug addiction in China pose great public health challenges, these government interventions are likely to successfully stem the problem of drug abuse in the future.

Mann R. Smokescreens: Tobacco, pipes, and the transformational power of fur trade rituals. IN: Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. pp. 164-184. (70 refs.)

This chapter is one of several that address the protohistoric period and first contacts between Native Americans and Europeans. It considers the role of pipes in promoting social interactions between Native peoples and Europeans, in the context of the fur trade. Trade had widely divergent definitions and differing expected rules of behavior -- for the Europeans being essentially an economic transaction and for Native Americans it's entailing more of a social interaction, as between friends and/or kin. A case study from the Wabash River area of Indiana is used to demonstrate how the use of pipes reduced the apparent contradictions and in the immediate setting re-fined both parties as compatriots, at least temporarily.

Mayet S; Groshkova T; Morgan L; MacCormack T; Strang J. Drugs, alcohol and pregnant women: Changing characteristics of women engaging with a specialist perinatal outreach addictions service. Drug and Alcohol Review 27(5): 490-496, 2008. (25 refs.)

Pregnant substance misusers present an increased risk to themselves and the unborn child. The aim of this study was to investigate changes in the characteristics of women referred to a specialist perinatal addictions outreach service (1989-1991 versus 2002-2005). A cross-sectional audit of health records was conducted. Information was gathered for each woman who contacted the service (2002-2005). Data were compared to an earlier study in the same locality (1989-1991). A total of 167 pregnant substance-using women were referred between 2002 and 2005, of whom 126 made contact. The mean age was 30.2 years at 20.8 weeks' fetal gestation, with 76% not in addictions treatment, 32% from black or minority ethnic (BME) communities, 49% polysubstance users and 29% homeless. The primary substance used was illicit heroin (38%), followed by cocaine (24%). Compared to 1989-1991, there were significantly more pregnant women presenting at an older age, later gestation, with increased polysubstance use and a higher percentage of women from BME communities. This service was able to access vulnerable substance-abusing women with an altered pattern of substance use compared to over 10 years previously. However, improvements are needed for engaging all referred women and accessing women at an earlier gestation.

Medicine B. Drinking and Sobriety among the Lakota Sioux. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, a division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007

Where previous studies have focused primarily upon drinking styles among Indian populations, the author employing ethnographic research methods to analyze the nature of drinking and control of alcohol abuse. This study focuses upon the Lakota (Standing Rock in North and South Dakota). It examines patterns of alcohol consumption and strategies by individuals to attain a new life-style and achieve sobriety. The author also speaks to the importance of understanding specific cultural tradition. Numerous examples are provided of how Lakota men and women experience and culturally manage alcohol consumption, helping readers understand how certain undercurrents of Lakota life and culture support both alcoholism and sobriety. For example, in a culture packed with rewards for behaviors that are indicative of strong individualism, data is provided to describes how alcoholics use this value to maintain heavy drinking (on the one hand) and (on the other) to invoke it as part of their strategic determination to attain new and individual sobriety. The pattern is nearly full opposite to 12-step programs and others that call upon 'group' or 'community' sanction against alcoholism in order to 'cure' individual alcoholics. The work is organized into 8 chapters. The first chapter deals with the pervasive myth that "All Indians are drunks." Chapter two sets forth the origins of alcohol use among American Indians, followed by a chapter dealing with the more recent path and Minnewakan "magic water." Attention then turns to the Sioux social system, drinking behavior among contemporary Lakota (Sioux) Indians. The concluding chapters consider American Indian sobriety, religious renaissance and the control of alcohol, and the Lakota sun dance; and finally the patterns of sobriety among the Sioux.

Mills J. Morality, society and the science of intoxication: A response to David Courtwright's "Mr. ADOP's Wild Ride: What do alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs have in common?'. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 20(1): 133-137, 2005. (2 refs.)

This paper is one of several responses to the keynote address by David Courtright at the Conference on Drugs and Alcohol in History, held at Huron University College, London, Ontario, in 2004

Miovsky M. Changing patterns of drug use in the Czech Republic during the post-communist era: A qualitative study. Journal of Drug Issues 37(1): 73-102, 2007. (51 refs.)

The author carried out a reconstruction of the development of the Czech Republic's drug scene on the basis of the results of key research studies that made use of qualitative methods; he also utilized a multilayer timeline according to target groups and socio-historical perspectives. The last decade of the 20th century was a period in which the Czech drug scene underwent a radical transformation, both in problem drug use (see the definition in the editorial) and recreational use of illicit drugs. The original "hard core" groups were usually comprised of individuals who shared close personal relationships. A system of home production and self-supply dominated the market, and this system was not very organized or hierarchical. The entire drug scene opened up in the course of the 1990s and started to "move" and communicate markedly, both internally and externally. A stabilization of prices, purity, and availability of drugs, as well as the relationships and rules of the black market, was characteristic of the second half of the 1990s. The field of recreational use (of cannabis and the so-called "recreational" drugs in particular) went through a different development during this period, when other changes that deepened the commercial nature of the market took place.

Mold A; Berridge V. 'The rise of the user'? Voluntary organizations, the state and illegal drugs in England since the 1960s. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 15(5): 451-461, 2008. (39 refs.)

This article examines the place of the drug user in drug policy and practice in England since the 1960s. It argues that though the drug user has 'risen' in the sense that users now play a key role in contemporary policy and practice, this was not a neat, linear process. Moreover, the current position of the drug user is constrained by a range of wider forces.

Moos R. Conversation with Rudolf Moos. Addiction 103(1): 13-23, 2008. (19 refs.)

Morgan R; Freeman L. The healing of our people: Substance abuse and historical trauma. Substance Use & Misuse 44(1): 84-98, 2009. (25 refs.)

For the past two decades, one of the authors (Robert Morgan) has been involved in the development and implementation of culturally based outpatient, inpatient, and aftercare programs for Alaskan native and American-Indian populations in Alaska. After years of observation, it was concluded that the best efforts of our clinicians were inadequate to the task at hand, i.e., that of resolving the social and physical ills that have ravaged the Alaskan peoples since the occupation. Morgan and others sought to create a new model of diagnosis and treatment that combined the cultural strengths of the people with the technical and treatment skills of the conventional medical profession. The model was grounded in a clear understanding of the factors causing disease in the people, and that understanding came from the people themselves. Before the growth of the healing plant that Uncle Walter spoke of could be nurtured, it was necessary to first examine the question of cause and effect. Much of the cause is rooted in the historical trauma experienced by the Alaska Native People. The effects are numerous, but one of the most obvious symptoms is substance misuse.

Nakken JN. Perspectives: Remembering Dr. Dan Anderson. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 23(1): 115-118, 2005

This tribute to Dan Anderson recalls the human qualities and the contributions of a pioneer in the treatment of alcohol/other drug problems. His leadership and legacy at Hazelden and throughout the addiction field are honored.

Nassaney MS. Men and women: Pipes and power in Native New England. IN: Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. pp. 125-142. (62 refs.)

This chapter is one of several that address the protohistoric period and first contacts between Native Americans and Europeans. It focuses upon the experiences of the Narragansett (Rhode Island) during the period of contact, a time in which the Narragansett were beset by pandemics as well as the dispossession of land, events which led to a diminution in the powers awarded the spiritual advisors. In this context, patterns of pipe use changed, most notably with women's use increasing.

Nater L. Colonial tobacco: Key commodity of the Spanish empire, 1500-1800. IN: Topik S; Marichal C; Frank Z, eds. From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Building of the World Economy, 1500-2000. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006. pp. 93-117. (113 refs.)

Tobacco was known in the Americas long before the arrival of the Spaniards., and its use was linked to religion and magic. When introduced to Europe, its use was attributed to other functions, according to account in the late 15th early 16th century, because "it was recommended by those who returned from the Americas." Rapidly tobacco was justified in terms of its medicinal qualities. The trade in tobacco is described, its status as a commodity established, with tobacco becoming a source of wealth.

Nelson JP; Pederson LL. Military tobacco use: A synthesis of the literature on prevalence, factors related to use, and cessation interventions. (review). Nicotine & Tobacco Research 10(5): 775-790, 2008. (54 refs.)

Tobacco use remains the number one cause of preventable morbidity and premature death in the United States. As a result, military leaders are recognizing that tobacco can adversely affect military fitness levels, deployment readiness, and safety and can increase health care costs. Yet military members continue to use tobacco. Tobacco may be viewed as part of the military culture since military members have used tobacco for many decades for pleasure, comfort, and currency and as a morale booster. Most recently, the military has seen an increase in tobacco use among young military members. A number of research studies have examined the prevalence of tobacco and factors related to use in the military, and several have evaluated cessation and prevention interventions. This article provides a brief historical perspective of military tobacco use in the 20th century and a critical review of the literature published between 1991 and 2006 describing prevalence of tobacco use, factors influencing use, and cessation interventions in the military. Recommendations for future research and for interventions are provided.

Noon MA. Yuengling: A History of America's Oldest Brewery. Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2005

This story outlines the history of the oldest brewery in the United States. It was founded in 1829 by D.G. Yuengling, a German immigrant living in Pottsville, Pennsylvania. The company continues in operation and remains in the hands of the founder�s descendents. The first chapter examines the life and times of the brewery�s founder and an immigrant from W�rttemberg Germany. It was started during the "rush" to the anthracite coal region in the 1820s. Of interest is how the brewery survived during Prohibition, by producing "near" beers. As problematic as prohibition for small breweries was the lager marked consolidation of brewing, and the emergence of national companies.

O'Brien CP. The CAGE Questionnaire for detection of alcoholism: A remarkably useful but simple tool (Reprinted from JAMA, vol 252, pg 1905-1907, 1984) reprint. Journal of the American Medical Association 300(17): 2054-2056, 2008. (12 refs.)

This is a reprint of the article outlining the use of four questions to screen for alcohol dependence, a tool known as the CAGE. "Four clinical interview questions, the CAGE questions, have proved useful in helping to make a diagnosis of alcoholism. The questions focus on Cutting down, Annoyance by criticism, Guilty feeling, and Eye-openers. The acronym 'CAGE' helps the physician to recall the questions. How these questions were identified and their use in clinical and research studies are described." (from the original article)

Padosch SA; Lachenmeier DW; Kr�ner LU. Absinthism: A fictitious 19th century syndrome with present impact. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy 1(e-article 14), 2006. (108 refs.)

Absinthe, a bitter spirit containing wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L.), was banned at the beginning of the 20th century as consequence of its supposed unique adverse effects. After nearly century-long prohibition, absinthe has seen a resurgence after recent de-restriction in many European countries. This review provides information on the history of absinthe and one of its constituent, thujone. Medical and toxicological aspects experienced and discovered before the prohibition of absinthe are discussed in detail, along with their impact on the current situation. The only consistent conclusion that can be drawn from those 19th century studies about absinthism is that wormwood oil but not absinthe is a potent agent to cause seizures. Neither can it be concluded that the beverage itself was epileptogenic nor that the so-called absinthism can exactly be distinguished as a distinct syndrome from chronic alcoholism. The theory of a previous gross overestimation of the thujone content of absinthe may have been verified by a number of independent studies. Based on the current available evidence, thujone concentrations of both pre-ban and modern absinthes may not have been able to cause detrimental health effects other than those encountered in common alcoholism. Today, a questionable tendency of absinthe manufacturers can be ascertained that use the ancient theories of absinthism as a targeted marketing strategy to bring absinthe into the spheres of a legal drug-of-abuse. Misleading advertisements of aphrodisiac or psychotropic effects of absinthe try to re-establish absinthe's former reputation. In distinction from commercially manufactured absinthes with limited thujone content, a health risk to consumers is the uncontrolled trade of potentially unsafe herbal products such as absinthe essences that are readily available over the internet.

Pedersen MU. Professional expertise versus market mechanisms in contemporary Denmark. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 315-338. (36 refs.)

This study provides a case study of the emergence of modern alcohol/drug treatment in Denmark, from the early '60s through the turn of the century. It is a story about the move from a loyal and bureaucratic public treatment system with great emphasis on organizational homeostasis (i.e., a bureaucratic administrative system that doesn�t like turmoil) toward an increasing use of New Public Management (NPM) strategies. These strategies are characterized by decentralization, with an increasing emphasis on market mechanisms and the use of competition parameters, such as evidence, documentation and effect. It is also the account of how NPM can be implemented in a Nordic administrative system consisting of a hierarchy of state, counties and municipalities.

Pennock P. The evolution of U.S. temperence movements since repeal: A comparison of two campiagns to control alcoholic beverage marketing, 1950s and 1980s. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 20(1): 14-65, 2005. (79 refs.)

This paper compares the politics of a failed religious movement to ban alcohol advertising in the 1950s with the politics of a more secular, and partially successful, movement to regular alcohol marketing in the 1970s and 1980s. Although the contexts of the two marketing control movements were quite different, the continuities were equally striking. Both employed arguments about youth, social order, and the power of mass media.

Peters E. What the taste test showed: Alcohol and politics in French Vietnam. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 19: 94-110, 2004. (35 refs.)

This article traces the history of the efforts by the French colonialists in Vietnam, who derived a substantial portion of income from the sale of alcohol, to increase controls on alcohol and substitute a "purified" alcohol in place of traditional products. The article shows how the Chinese and Vietnamese inhabitants of southern Vietnam forced significant concessions from the French government at the expense of state distillers.

Prestjan A. Idealistic doctors: Alcoholism treatment institutions in Sweden 1885-1916. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 25-49. (52 refs.)

During the 1880s and the 1890s, Sweden�s first specialised institutions for the care and cure of alcoholics were started up. The opinion that inebriety could be a curable disease was then controversial, and the practice at the institutions was the work of a few, convinced physicians, whose treatment methods were inspired by nature cure medicine and had much in common with so called moral treatment principles. During this first period of organised and specialised private alcoholism treatment, experiences were gained that were of great importance to the later development of a Swedish system of alcoholism treatment run by the state. This article deals with the ideas and practices of the first institutions for the treatment of alcoholics.

Radenkova-Saeva J. Recreational drugs and its impact on music literature and art. (review). Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment 22(2): 656-659, 2008. (37 refs.)

Drug use is a practice that dates to prehistoric times. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances dating back at least 10, 000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5, 000 years. Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes, both legal and illicit. Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects. Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Drugs have also had an undeniable influence on art and culture. Many artists, especially in the XIX century, used various drugs and explored their influence on human life in general and particularly on the creative process. Drugs play an important role in various subcultures, such as reggae music and hippy movements. In every culture, man has used drugs to dispel anxiety, stimulate productivity, and to increase the feelings of joy and satisfaction. Drug abuse particularly affects young people and has become one of the most important and widely discussed issues in society. It is therefore an important task in medical science to find answers to how drugs exert their effect and what leads to addiction and permanent consumption.

Rafferty SM. "They pass their lives in smoke, and at death fall into the fire": Smoking peoples and mortuary ritual during the early Woodland Period. IN: Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. pp. 1-42. (135 refs.)

This is one of two chapters dealing with prehistoric case studies. It considers some of the oldest pipes found in North America, with attention to the Woodland period, and with a focus on the northeast and Ohio. The cultural domain considered is mortuary practices and the prominent role of tobacco pipes, and how these became involved in ideological messages associated with burial rituals. The title of the chapter is derived from one of the earliest observers of smoking rituals, by a Jesuit missioner in New France in 1634. It is believed that the use of tobacco pipes was widespread over extended historical eras and geographic areas. Three features are discussed: the incorporation of animal symbols and totems; the use of tobacco as a psychoactive substance, along with other naturally occurring substances; and the integration of smoking into collective and individual lives as a means of spiritual purification, in a context of ritual, and with relevance to cosmological understandings.

Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. (Chapter refs.)

While there has been much written in the archaeological literature on smoking pipes, the general thrust has been the use of pipes as a chronological marker, but relatively little attention has been directed to the role these tobacco pipes played in the culture and societies that used them. The papers in this volume attempt to remedy that. The introductory chapter provides an overview of the history of smoking in North America dating from the Woodland and Mississippian periods, and the role of tobacco pipes in Na�ve American ritual. The volume with 11 chapters and 13 contributors is organized by chronological order

Rasmussen N. On Speed. The Many Lives of Amphetamine. New York: New York University Press, 2008

The book presents the history of the amphetamine class of drugs that were first created in the early part of the 20th century. Paralleling the discussion of the drug's use and resulting problems for individuals due to its abuse potention, is the story of the pharmaceutical industry's efforts to retain the drug in the pharmacopia and its efforts to find problems for which it can be prescribed. Amphetamine, as a class of drugs, was first discovered by Gordon Alles in 1929 while he was doing research on adrenaline substitutes. Although not the first to actually identify the molecule, he was the first to precipitate the salt form and identify it as a potential drug. Eventually he sold the rights to the drug to the Smith Kline French. The story sets forth the efforts to find a use for the new compound and the efforts by the company to get doctors to experiment with "creative" uses, which have included during WW II use by the military to maintain alertness, medically use for weight loss, most recently, attention deficit disorders. The author notes the major property was seemingly to make people feel happy and empowered, and it's emergence as a recreational drug is recounted.

Rasmussen N. America's first amphetamine epidemic 1929-1971: A quantitative and qualitative retrospective with implications for the present. (editorial). American Journal of Public Health 98(6): 974-985, 2008. (116 refs.)

Using historical research that draws on new primary sources, I review the causes and course of the first mainly iatrogenic amphetamine epidemic in the United States from the 1940s through the 1960s. Retrospective epidemiology indicates that the absolute prevalence of both nonmedical stimulant use and stimulant dependence or abuse have reached neat the same levels today as at the epidemic's peak around 1969. Further parallels between epidemics past and present including evidence that consumption of prescribed amphetamines has also reached the same absolute levels today as at the original epidemic's peak, suggest that stricter limits on pharmaceutical stimulants must be considered in any efforts to reduce amphetamine abuse today.

Rassool GH. Alcohol and Drug Misuse: A Handbook for Students and Health Professionals. London: Routledge, 2008

During recent years, the misuse of nicotine, alcohol, prescribed medications, over-the-counter drugs and illicit psychoactive substances have increased dramatically, resulting in health and socio-economic problems - to which every health care professional will need to recognize and respond. The book is organized into three parts. Part I provides an overview, including historical attitudes toward addiction and policy approaches. Part II is comprised of separate chapters devoted to specific drugs: alcohol, opiates, cannabis, stimulants (amphetamine, cocaine and khat), hallucinogens steroids, sedatives, inhalants, nicotine, and over-the-counter preparations. Part III includes discussion of special issues and special populations, i.e. blood-borne infection, women, those with comorbid psychiatric illness, racial and ethnic groups and vulnerable populations (the elderly and the homeless) and the young. Part IV focuses upon prevention and strategies for change. Part V examines different types of interventions, from harm reduction to health interventions for overdose and intoxication, to psychosocial and pharmacological therapies, with special attention to nicotine and alcohol. The book concludes with discussion of professional development.

Coyright 2008, Project Cork

Reckner P. Home rulers, red hands, and radical journalists: Clay pipes and the negotiation of working-class Irish/Irish American identify in late nineteenth-century. IN: Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. pp. 241-272. (74 refs.)

This chapter looks to the experience of the Irish immigrants and Irish American life in a New Jersey urban area, in the late 18th and 19th centuries. This discussion is organized around the nature of the pipe decoration, which included symbols of Irish identity and nationalism.

Roberts J. Albion Dreaming: A Popular History of LSD in Britain. London: Marshall Cavendish, 2008

This book examines at the history of the use of LSD in British society, from its arrival in 1952 to the present day. It traces its early origins, ranging from its wide use as part of clinical care and psychotherapy to its use by the military and intelligence agencies to promote interrogation, to its movement into the larger culture. This included use prior to LSD's becoming illegal, which occurred in 1966, and then LSD's role in shaping the music and fashion worlds of the Sixties and Seventies. The bulk of the book traces the counterculture's fascination with the drug along with the media's condemnation.

Robins P. Back from the brink: Turkey's ambivalent approaches to the hard drugs issue. Middle East Journal 62(4): 630-650, 2008. (55 refs.)

This article focuses on the issue of narcotics and Turkey over a 30-year period. Its point of departure is the 1970s, when the opium production crisis in Turkey, and its associated corrosion of relations with the US, had been brought to an end. The article concentrates on the period in the late 1980s/early to mid-1990s, When the hard drugs issue became fused with other security threats like terrorism and state corruption. During this dark period, Turkey's criminal organizations that were trafficking narcotics made significant inroads in alliance-building with parts of the security state. The article ends with the experiences of the late 1990s and early 2000s, when the Turkish state succeeded in containing the impact of illicit drugs. The article argues that both external but in particular internal factors were important in propelling the Turkish stale towards purging itself of criminal elements involved with hard drugs. With respect to the latter, it argues that the need to safeguard the state, rather than the narcotics issue per se, was the key factor driving change.

Room R. Addiction concepts and international control. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 20(2): 276-289, 2006. (35 refs.)

Addiction concepts became established in the wake of the great expansion of the availability of psychoactive substances through the globalization of the age of European empires and the industrial revolution. Addiction was a way of understanding (and locating either in the substance or in individual deficiencies) the contradictions between ready availability and the demands for sobriety imposed by the new means of production and transportation. Originally applied to alcohol, addiction concepts were soon applied to other substances. The elusive place of addiction concepts in current international drug control treaties is considered. On the one hand, the "serious evil" and "danger" of addiction is a preambular justification for the treaties; on the other hand, the addict and addiction otherwise disappear from consideration, except in terms of technical criteria for the inclusion of substances.

Rorabaugh WJ. Drinking in the "Thin Man" films, 1934-1947. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 18: 51-68, 2003. (11 refs.)

This article examines the the changing cultural attitudes toward drinking, through an examination of the the "Thin Man" films, based on the book by Dashiell Hammett. Of note, per capita alcohol consumption during the 1930s was below pre-Prohibition levels. In part the series of films re-ntroduced Americans to drinking, and depicts the many settings in which alcohol in appropropriate and its diverse functions.

Rozsa L. A psychochemical weapon considered by the Warsaw Pact: A research note. Substance Use & Misuse 44(2): 172-178, 2009. (18 refs.)

Contrary to widespread rumours during the Cold War era, little, if any, evidence existed in the scientific literature to support the view that the Soviet Union or its Warsaw Pact allies considered the use of psychochemical weapons militarily. The Hungarian State Archives have recently opened up declassified records of Hungary's State Defence Council meetings held between 1962 and 1978. Materials submitted to the Council include reports about the coordinative meetings of the Warsaw Pact military medical services. Research into possible countermeasures against psychotropic drugs is listed as a research priority assigned to Hungary in 1962. Hungary rejected this task in 1963, but joined the ongoing project again in 1965. Methylamphetamine was produced in Budapest for use as an experimental model of such weapons. Within the context of contemporary western research, this drug was considered to be an effective interrogation tool. Similarly to the CIA, Hungary also failed to develop an antidote against it and the project was terminated, fruitlessly, in 1972. These documents serve as evidence that a Warsaw Pact forum had, in fact, been considering a psychochemical weapon as a warfare agent.

Russo EB; Jiang HE; Li X; Sutton A; Carboni A; del Bianco F et al. Phytochemical and genetic analyses of ancient cannabis from Central Asia. Journal of Experimental Botany 59(15): 4171-4182, 2008. (53 refs.)

The Yanghai Tombs near Turpan, Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous Region, China have recently been excavated to reveal the 2700-year-old grave of a Caucasoid shaman whose accoutrements included a large cache of cannabis, superbly preserved by climatic and burial conditions. A multidisciplinary international team demonstrated through botanical examination, phytochemical investigation, and genetic deoxyribonucleic acid analysis by polymerase chain reaction that this material contained tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive component of cannabis, its oxidative degradation product, cannabinol, other metabolites, and its synthetic enzyme, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase, as well as a novel genetic variant with two single nucleotide polymorphisms. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture as a medicinal or psychoactive agent, or an aid to divination. To our knowledge, these investigations provide the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent, and contribute to the medical and archaeological record of this pre-Silk Road culture.

Saidel BA. Smoking out Ottomanites in northern Sinai, Egypt: The use of clay tobacco pipes for identifying the nature of settlements in the Ottoman Period. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 140(1): 55-69, 2008. (57 refs.)

In this study clay tobacco pipes collected by the North Sinai Expedition are used to provide insights into settlement Patterns and the structure of archaeological sites in the region. At many sites in northern Sinai, clay tobacco pipes are the only evidence of human activity. The absence of contemporary material culture and the typically of one smoking pipe per site can be interpreted as evidence for ephemeral occupations. From this information it is argued that many of these sites were occupied by bedouin and transient Egyptian fellahin, perhaps on a short-term basis. The variations in the distribution of clay smoking pipes in north Sinai between the 17(th)-18(th) centuries and the 19(th)-early 20(th) centuries most likely represent the physical remains of different adaptive responses to varying socio-economic conditions in northeastern Egypt and Ottoman Palestine.

Seddon T. Women, harm reduction and history: Gender perspectives on the emergence of the 'British System' of drug control. International Journal of Drug Policy 19(2): 99-105, 2008. (37 refs.)

Taking Kohn's classic book "Dope Girls" as its starting point, this paper explores the particular place of women and gender issues in the emergence of the 'British System' of drug control in the early twentieth century. The 'British System' refers to the approach put in place in the 1920s in Britain, notably by the 1926 Rolleston Report. In essence, it involved the medically based prescription of opiates to addicts, often on a long-term basis. It is viewed by many as one of the beginnings of the general principle of harm reduction within drug policy. This paper will examine how female figures - chorus girls, actresses, night club girls, prostitutes - were central to British drugs discourse in the 1920s, with the representation of some individual women in particular, most famously the actress Billie Carleton, featuring very prominently. It will be argued that this gendering of drugs discourse can be best understood in the wider context of social change, namely the transition from liberalism to welfarism at the turn of the twentieth century. It is suggested that this historical analysis provides a radical new perspective on some fundamental issues for contemporary approaches to harm reduction for women, a perspective that has far-reaching implications and challenges some 'taken-for-granted' assumptions.

Selzer M. Haven an a heartless sea: The sailor's tavern in history and anthropology. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 19: 63-93, 2004. (49 refs.)

The tavern was once a fixture on the waterfront of seaports, serving merchant sailors with lodgings. This paper provides an overview of tavern life as described in popular histories, works of fiction, biographies, autobiographies, missionary tracts, and social historical writings. It also incorporates the author's ethnographic study of the tavern and shipboard life. The similarities between shipboard life of the 17th century and the present day are more marked than might be expected. The feature that remains essentially unchanged is the manner in which shipboard existance dominate other spheres of life, provides high levels of structure in contrast to life on shore, which is less disciplined, less structured and more unpredictable. The role of the tavern, as a home away from home, in dealing with these transitions is considered.

Sinha J. History and Development of the Leading International Drug Control Conventions. Ottawa Canada: Library of Parliament (Canada) Canadian Parliament, Senate Special Committee On Illegal Drugs, February 21, 2001. (64 refs.)

This is a special report prepared for the Canadian Parliament's Senate Special Committee On Illegal Drugs. It reviews the history and development of international drug control conventions. The current legal and administrative framework for international drug control is laid out in three international Conventions negotiated in 1961 under the auspices of the United Nations (UN). These include (1) the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 (Single Convention) as amended by the Protocol Amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961; the Convention on Psychotropic Substances (Psychotropics Convention); and the Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (Trafficking Convention). These agreements were the product of multiple prior conferences and international agreements, dating back to the 1909. The first portion of this report summarizes these earlier initiatives beginning with the 1909 Shangai Conference, and followed by the 1912 Hague International Opium Convention, the 1925 Geneva Opium Conventions, the 1931 Geneva Narcotics Manufacturing and Distribution Limitation Convention/1931 Bangkok Opium Smoking Agreement, the 1936 Geneva Trafficking Convention, events of World War II, the 1946 Lake Success Protocol, the 1948 Paris Protocol, and the 1953 New York Opium Protocol. The history of international drug control gives insight into the philosophical and practical underpinnings of the three drug Conventions. Beginning in an era of morally tainted racism and colonial trade wars, prohibition-based drug control grew to international proportions at the insistence of the United States. America and the colonial powers were confronted with the effects of drug addiction and abuse at home, but rather than address both demand -- the socio-medical nature of such problems -- and supply, they focused uniquely on the latter and attempted to stem the flow of drugs into their territories. In doing so, they earned political capital back home and shifted the cost and burden of drug control to predominantly Asian and Latin American developing countries with no cultural inclination or resources to take on such an intrusive task-- and no economic or military power to refuse what was imposed on them. The Western control advocates' prohibition focus also stimulated the growth and development of the global illicit drug trade. And ironically, the system has had very little overall success in controlling the supply of drugs at the source. Nonetheless, supply-oriented activists largely achieved their goal of creating a prohibition-based international drug control system. The role of the pharmaceutical companies in the emergence of these conventions is described. The Single Convention consolidated the system under the UN into one key narcotics control document - an instrument representing the compromises between the domestic and economic interests of predominantly Western, drug manufacturing nations. The Psychotropics Convention represented a weakening of the control structure because of the overwhelming influence of European and North American pharmaceutical interests throughout negotiations. The Trafficking Convention firmly established a system of international criminal drug control law that uses criminalization and penalization to combat global drug trafficking. Although the three Conventions do leave member countries some leeway to craft drug control strategies shaped to their particular socio-cultural, political and economic realities, this flexibility is clearly limited by an overarching structure based on prohibition and criminalization. Note: This is a special report prepared for the Canadian Parliament's Senate Special Committee On Illegal Drugs.

Skretting A. Medicalisation with a focus on injecting drug users: Changes in the Norwegian treatment system from the 1990s. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 289-314. (20 refs.)

This chapter describes the ways in which the health and medical sectors steadily acquired more and more responsibility for substance abuse treatment, from the end of the 1990s to the present. It examines the reliance on drug substitution therapy, the emergence of the specialist health service, and the exploration of public drug injection facilities.

Smith N. Opiate addiction and the entanglements of imperialism and partriarchy in Manchukuo, 1932-1945. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 20(1): 66-104, 2005. (101 refs.)

In the Japanese colonial state of Manchukuo, opiate addiction was condemned by officials and critics alike. But the state-sponsored creation of a monopoly, opium laws, and rehabilitation programs failed to reduce rates of addiction. Further, official media condemnation of opiate addiction melded with local Chinese-language literature to stigmatise addiction, casting a negative light over the state's failure to realise its own anti-opiate agenda. Chinese writers were thus transfixed in a complex colonial environment in which they applauded measures to reduce harm to the local population while levelling critiques of Japanese colonial rule. This paper demonstrates how the Chinese language literature of Manchukuo did not simply parrot official policies. It also de-legitimised Japanese rule through opiate narratives that are gendered, consistently negative, and more critical of the state than might be expected in a colonial literature.

Smyth A, ed. A Pleasing Sinne: Drink and Conviviality in Seventeenth-Century England. London: D.S. Brewer, 2004. (Chapter refs.)

This edited work with 13 contributors discusses diverse social contexts -- from the Inns of Court to rural Derbyshire -- chapters ask what kinds of etiquettes and rituals governed different drinking communities in the seventeenth century. What then was the significance of particular drink for particular social contexts? How exclusive were drinking communities? And what happened when outsiders breached these groups? The role of gender in drinking and sociability is considered, including the ambiguous figure of the female drinker: was alcohol a source of female empowerment or a mechanism to enforce a patriarchal culture? The influence of particular kinds of drink - claret, port, beer, ale, cider, perry - and particular kinds of drinkers in generating discourses of politics, nationalism, and xenophobia is considered; and the received views of moderation and excess are analysed. While early modern medicinal tracts championed measured drinking of wine and beer as a cure for sickness, drunkenness was consistently and dramatically aligned with physical decay, madness and sedition. The range of texts discussed is broad: popular broadside ballads and husbandry manuals; dramatic works; verse collections; manuscript miscellanies; scientific and medical tracts; and political treaties.

Snelders S; Meijman FJ; Pieters T. Heredity and alcoholism in the medical sphere: The Netherlands, 1850-1900. Medical History 51(2): 219-236, 2007. (73 refs.)

In the nineteenth century there was a diversity of opinions around alcohol use and its connections to heredity. It was generally accepted that chronic alcoholism could be inherited or transmitted to descendants as morbid nervous predisposition. Together with tuberculosis and syphilis, alcoholism was regarded as a major cause of degeneration and as such defined as a public threat that should be curbed by public health measures. In a number of countries support was mounting for ''hard-line'' policies of eugenics, such as marriage restrictions and involuntary sterilizations. But other scenarios of fighting the ''alcoholism peril'' were also enacted. The authors use the experience in the Netherlands as a case study for examining the dynamics in the discussion of medical hereditarianism. The case study centres on the roles played by notions of heredity in Dutch medicine, by analysing discourses on prevention and treatment of alcoholism and alcohol abuse in the Dutch medical literature. The Dutch are not regarded as pioneers of medical and political activities in this field. It might therefore be that a focus on the Netherlands shows developments representative of general mainstream developments in western medicine. The study operates on two analytical levels. First, there is the level of theory and conceptualization within medicine; second, we distinguish the level of application and practical approaches.

Spode H. What does alcohol history mean and to what end to we study it? A plea for speciralism. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 18: 16-34, 2003. (25 refs.)

This commentary traces the changing attitudes and approaches toward the study of alcohol use and drinking patterns, through the lens of the author's academic career.

Stenius K. In the faint shadow of Prohibition: The first Finnish Alcoholics Act of 1936. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 97-120. (27 refs.)

This chapter deals with the history of Prohibition in Finland, in effect between 1919 and 1932, and which in many ways mirrored the experiences of Prohibition in the U.S. and in other ways differed. Both pre-, during and post-Prohibition in Finland, was seen primarily as a social problem, rather than an individual one. The disease concept did not become part of the discouse in Finland until the 1950s. The Finnish Alcolics Act that was inacted at the close of Prohibition was intended to "handle persons �leading an inebriate life� who fulfilled one of the following criteria: a) being dangerous to themselves or others, b) being an apparent disturber of the neighbourhood, c) neglecting to provide for the livelihood and care of those for whom they were legally responsible, d) being a burden to someone close to them, e) being in need of poor relief or f) having been convicted of public drunkenness at least three times during the previous 12 months." The measures were graded, starting with out-patient advice and a warning, and progressing to compulsory measures: supervision (typically for one year) and compulsory treatment. This chapter aims at shedding light on the continuity that characterised the development of reactions to the drink problems in Finland during the first decades of the 20th century � a continuity that was strong in spite of prohibition.

Stenius K; Erdman J. A frame. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 5-23. (20 refs.)

This introductory chapter sets forth the impetus for this book, i.e., that most that has been written in Scandinavia about the history of substanceabuse treatment, being written in Finnish or other Nordic languages has been untranslated and thus inaccessible to the broader field. In focusing upon the community of Nordic country, this book provides cross-cultural comparisons, between countries with much in common, thus allowing the potential for assessing the influence of diverse factors, when confronted with differing substance abuse treatment systems. The book includes separate chapers on the history of alcohol/drug treatment in each of the Nordic countries. The settings described range from voluntary treatment of middle-class alcoholics in the late 19th cenury in Sweden,through large, prison-like institutions in all of the countries in the middle of the 20th century, used for compulsory care, to harm reduction programs that emerged toward the end of the 20th century.

Stolberg VB. A cross-cultural and historical survey of tobacco use among various ethnic groups. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse 6(3/4): 9-80, 2007

This review of tobacco use in diverse historical and cultural contexts reveals a range of behaviors engaged in and perspectives held by members of respective ethnic groups, such as whether to consider tobacco as a medicine or as a problem. After its introduction to Western societies, many attributed tobacco with an array of medicinal uses, while condemning recreational use and identifying it as immoral. Tobacco has been used variously by respective ethnic groups at different times and places and these customs have flavored understandings of the relationships between tobacco and the body. Considerable ethnic variation exists not only in terms of tobacco use and abuse, but also with respect to pharmacogenetic factors that influences the consequences of tobacco exposure. There have also been different societal responses to the use of tobacco, including those related to the media, as well as to issues of treatment and prevention.

Sullivan MA; Birkmayer F; Boyarsky BK; Frances RJ; Fromson JA; Galanter M et al. Uses of coercion in addiction treatment: Clinical aspects. American Journal on Addictions 17(1): 36-47, 2008. (78 refs.)

Coerced or involuntary treatment comprises an integral, often positive component of treatment for addictive disorders. By the same token, coercion in health care raises numerous ethical, clinical, legal, political, cultural, and philosophical issues. In order to apply coerced care effectively, health care professionals should appreciate the indications, methods, advantages, and liabilities associated with this important clinical modality. An expert panel, consisting of the Addiction Committee of the Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, listed the issues to be considered by clinicians in considering coerced treatment. In undertaking this task, they searched the literature using Pubmed from 1985 to 2005 using the following search terms: addiction, alcohol, coercion, compulsory, involuntary, substance, and treatment. In addition, they utilized relevant literature from published reports. In the treatment of addictions, coercive techniques can be effective and may be warranted in some circumstances. Various dimensions of coercive treatment are reviewed, including interventions to initiate treatment; contingency contracting and urine testing in the context of psychotherapy; and pharmacological methods of coercion such as disulfiram, naltrexone, and the use of a cocaine vaccine. The philosophical, historical, and societal aspects of coerced treatment are considered.

Tagliacozzo E. Secret Trades, Porous Borders: Smuggling and States Along a Southeast Asian Frontier, 1865-1915. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005

Among other topics this book describes and explores the drug smuggling in southeast Asia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. .The author is less interested in drugs per se, than in the nature of smuggling, which he characteriszes as "under-trade" or "secret trade." The Europeans in creating nation states, out of what were previously indistinct political units, and then trying to regulate trade and collect taxes, often ran into difficulty. There was considerable secret trade by those who did not recognize or who contested the boundaries drawn. This trade included not only drugs, but people, commodities, and weapons., which are all considered. Typically smugglers mixed legal and illegal trade from voyage to voyage, or even among cago within a single trip. The chapter on opium includes many stories, including a tale of smugglers who told local inhabitants in Dutch controlled Indies, they were Russians, a story which fell apart when the native people described the flag with its stars-and-stripes. In much of the region described, opium was not illegal, but was treated as a state monopoly. Inevitably, those playing key roles were officials with access to large quantities. The size and profitability of the opium trade is seen in large part as related to the medicinal and addictive nature of opium.

Taxel I. An uncommon type of smoking implement from Ottoman Palestine. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 140(1): 39-53, 2008. (56 refs.)

The presence of an uncommon and barely reported Ope of ceramic smoking implement found in Ottoman-period archaeological contexts in sites in Palestine is discussed. This implement., Part of a large group of much more common Near Eastern smoking implements, expands our knowledge about the material culture and daily habits of the local population, and provides somewhat surprising evidence for the ethnic diversity of Palestine in the Ottoman period.

Taylor S. Medicalizing cannabis-science, medicine and policy, 1950-2004: An overview of a work in progress. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 15(5): 462-474, 2008. (75 refs.)

Cannabis has been the subject of much policy and media attention in the last few years and the 2004 legal changes under the Misuse of Drugs Act in the UK, were widely, although incorrectly, presented as liberalization or legalization of the drug. Current debates over the classification of cannabis as Class C or B serve to emphasize the controversies that surround the drug. This paper provides an overview of a Wellcome Trust three-year project that is currently in progress. Framed as a history of science and policy making, the project aims to study the process whereby boundaries shift between illicit 'drug' and licit 'medicine' and the issues and interests that are involved in that transaction. Specifically, the project aims to analyse the trajectory of research since the 1950s, the interests involved, in particular the role of scientific research and allied professions; industry; drug technology; and lay knowledge and user activism. It aims to analyse the interaction of science and medicine with policy through the examination of the policy role of expert committees and their membership. The impact of international agencies will also be considered. Lastly, it will assess the overall impact of medicalization on the policy environment. Standard historical methodology will be applied and a wide variety of published and archival source material, as well as semi-structured oral history interviews, will be utilized.

Tendler S; May D. The Brotherhood of Eternal Love: From Flower Power to Hippie Mafia. The Story of LSD Counter Culture. 2nd edition. London: Cyan Communications, 2007

This is a reprint of the authors' 1984 exploration of the drug underground of the 1960s, which has become a classic in the field. Crime reporter Tendler and journalist May combined to produce one of the first extensive and in-depth histories of LSD, from its discovery by Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman in 1943, through various efforts by the CIA in the 1950s in their search for the ultimate truth serum, through its manufacture and distribution into the Hippie communities of the 1960s by psychedelic supporters such as Augustus Owsley III, Grateful Dead-patron and master drug manufacturer. But while the media of the time focused on Timothy Leary as the main proponent of LSD, Tendler and May focus on the real key players: The Brotherhood of Eternal Love, a group of young drifters based in Laguna Beach, Calif., who started out as "missionaries" spreading the gospel of altered consciousness into big-business drug distributors who by the mid-1970s had reaped "$200 million through an estimated membership of 750 people." Here the authors chart the Brotherhood's expansion from California to Hawaii to Afghanistan, and its pursuit by international narcotics police, in what still remains a great combination of social history and true crime suspense.

Thatcher RW. Fighting Firewater Fictions: Moving Beyond the Disease Model of Alcoholism in First Nations. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004

Native communities are associated with higher than average rates of family violence, child abuse and neglect, suicide, arrest and incarceration. Despite offlcial assumptions, most problem drinkers on reserves are not alcoholics and the rate of abstinence among First Canadians is higher than the Canadian average. The incidence of high-risk drinking is linked to gender, education and employment, women, those with more schooling and those in the workforce are less likely to be affected. While some programs have adopted culturally- appropriate components -- sweat lodges, sweet grass ceremonies and the involvement of elders, this is seen more as evidence of efforts to be �politically correct" a and do little to improve a flawed model. This author attempts to explain the origins and continued appeal to the "firewater complex"; a set of beliefs about alcohol consumption in aboriginal communities. It argues that the traditional disease concept of alcoholism, government policies and the power structure of reserves for native people help perpetuate social and medical problems related to excessive drinking. It is suggested that a simplistic disease concept of alcoholism, based on abstinence as the only response, has to be re-evaluated, as do the real causal factors behind disruptive and unhealthy drinking. Reforms will only take place when the current passive model of reserve government, dominated by chiefs, band councils and influential families, is replaced by community-based approaches and genuine economic development. Until then, reserve populations will continue to suffer from risk-taking behaviours such as drinking, drug taking and gambling. The second half of the book suggests strategies for reorienting alcohol prevention strategies as well as treatment approaches. Among items discussed are the need for meaningful economic development, and broad community participation.

Thiesen H. Conservatism and social control. Treament with disulfiram in Denmark, 1945-2005. IN: Edman J; Stenius K, eds. On the Margins: Nordic alcohol and drug treatment 1885-2007. NAD Monograph No. 50. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2007. pp. 121-138. (24 refs.)

This chapter discusses the rise disulfiram (Antabuse) use in the treament of alcoholism in Denmark. The approach has been so widely adopted that the author suggests its use has become synonymous with alcohol treatment. Among the factors considered is the extent to which it was an instrument of social control, as much as its use was a therapeutic tool for individuals. There is also discussion of a self-help group, Links, that formed in Denmark in the late 1940, which from its inception had a professional element, and affiliation with outpatient clinics, and the eventual introduction of AA and the Minnesota treatment model in the 1980s.

Thomson AD; Cook CCH; Guerrini I; Sheedy D; Harper C; Marshall EJ. Wernicke's encephalopathy revisited. (review). Alcohol and Alcoholism 43(2): 174-179, 2008. (16 refs.)

Aims: A translation into English of the case history section of Carl Wernickes original manuscript of 1881, with a discussion on its relevance for clinicians today. Methods: A copy of Carl Wernickes original German text was obtained by one of the authors (CCHC) and translated into English from the old German by a professional translator. Results: The translation was subsequently agreed by native German speaking referees, and minor changes made. Conclusions: The authors studied the translation in detail and concluded that Wernickes description had stood the test of time. The diagnosis of Wernickes Encephalopathy remains a clinical one.

Topiak S; Samper M. The Latin American coffee commodity chain: Brazil and Costa Rica. IN: Topik S; Marichal C; Frank Z, eds. From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Building of the World Economy, 1500-2000. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006. pp. 118-146. (92 refs.)

For five centuries coffee has been grown in the southern hemisphere and consumed primarily in the northern hemisphere, in North America and Europe. This chapter traces the emergence and changes of the coffee economy from the 16th century to the present. In the beginning coffee was a Muslin drink, then gradually became a luxury drink in other areas, and then gradually spread to the larger population. The links with slavery in South America are described as central to the early production. Brazil and Costa Rica are discussed in detail.

Topik S; Marichal C; Frank Z, eds. From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Building of the World Economy, 1500-2000. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006. (Chapter refs.)

This edited collection includes 12 essays with 16 contributors. It examines the "commodity chain approach" to history, with each essay focusing on one commodity taken from Latin America over a 500 year period, and the relationship to the expansion of the world economy. The first of these was silver, which became the "money" of the emerging Atlantic economy. Other raw materials to be appropriated from the continent and which became central to the emerging global economy included indigo, cochineal ( a red dye valued by European nobility), tobacco, coffee, sugar, cacao, bananas, fertilizers (guano and nitrates), rubber, henequen, and, most recently cocaine. Each of these raw materials is examined as a "product" which became central to the international economy. Rather than the nation-state being the focus of analysis, the interest is commodities/products, and which bind different nations and areas in diverse ways. In this view, globalization is not a new phenomenon but a long-standing one. Aside from a vehicle for exploring different approaches to history, this volume considers products of interest to those involved in substance abuse: tobacco, coffee, and cocaine.

Topik S; Marichal C; Frank Z. Commodity chains in theory and in Latin American history. IN: Topik S; Marichal C; Frank Z, eds. From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Building of the World Economy, 1500-2000. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006. pp. 1-24. (119 refs.)

While there is now discussion of a global economy, as if it were a new phenomenon, this book demonstrates that a global economy is far from a new. It traces the trade of eleven major commodities from their origins in South America and Latin America, to their destinations in North America, Europe, and Asia. Individual chapters deal with major commodities of South/Latin America: silver, indigo, cochinel, sugar, bananas, guano and nitrate, rubber, henequen (fiber), as well as commodities of interest to those concerned about substance use � coffee, tobacco, and cocaine. This introduction provides an overview and framework for examining each of these commodities, from the point of production to a significant commodity in world trade.

Torgoff M. Can�t Find My Way Home: America in the Great Stoned Age. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004

This book is a history of drug use in the United States, a history that is also personal and memoir. The beginning point of the post-WWW II 'American Stoned Age' is viewed as lying with musicians who took heroin in the hope that it would enable them to emulate their hero Charlie 'Bird' Parker, and the Beat poets who also experimented with heroin. From that point experimentation and use expanded to include psychedelics, marijuana, and the stimulants. Rather than a history of use in the broad culture, the emphasis is upon the elites, use in the arts, Indeed the focus is upon the role of drugs in the youth culture, the arts, music, and the political movements.

Travis T. Print culture in the AA Fellowship. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 19: 28-62, 2004. (47 refs.)

Scholars have long recognized the importance of the oral culture of Alcoholics Anonymous. Attention has been directed to the relationships between AA speakers and their audiences, and the tension between performance and authenticity. This paper examines the nature of the printed culture within AA. The manner in which it structures oral traditions is considered, and its role in providing the underpinnings of the AA culture is emphasized. Both the "official" literature of AA, as distributed by the General Service Office, and more regional/local print matter is considered. An appendix lists the

Trubowitz NL. Smoking pipes: An archaeological measure of Native American culture stability and survival in Eastern North America, A.D. 1500-1850. IN: Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. pp. 143-164. (57 refs.)

This chapter is one of several that address the protohistoric period and first contacts between Native Americans and Europeans. It provides a synopsis of the pipes in the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. It summarizes the distribution of pipes and styles of pipes that have been discovered in North America, and their role as markers of differing ethnic groups, and the resistance to change that is found for the pipes of different groups through what were turbulent times.

Tyrrell I. Alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs: A response to David Courtwright. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 20(1): 129-132, 2005. (0 refs.)

This paper is one of several responses to the keynote address by David Courtright at the Conference on Drugs and Alcohol in History, held at Huron University College, London, Ontario, in 2004.

Tyrrell I. Thirty-three years of temperance, 1971-2004. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 19: 12-27, 2004. (25 refs.)

The author uses his academic career, covering a period of three decades, as a vehicle for examining the history and emergence of the field of temperance studies and its relationship to other areas of historical research, be it women's studies, or the history of social movements.

Valenzuela-Zapata AG; Nabhan GP. Tequila: A Natural and Cultural History. Tuscon, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2004. (91 refs.)

This volume, co-auhored by well known agronomist and an ethnobotonist, introduces the natural history, economics, and cultural significance of agave, the plant which is used in the making of tequila. They trace the origins of tequilla and its rise from a local beverage to a world-wide known product, which is produced in different varietes, marked by factors such as the length of aging and the region of origin. They devote equal attention to the agave plant from which the tequilla is made.

Veit R; Bello CA. "Neat and artificial pipes": Base metal trade pipes of the Northeastern Indians. IN: Rafferty SM; Mann R, eds. Smoking and Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. pp. 185-206. (76 refs.)

This chapter is one of several that address the period of first contacts between Native Americans and Europeans. It considers very unusual pipes, made not of clay or stone, but base metals, i.e. lead or pewter. These oft times were mistakenly believed to be of European manufacture. The style and geographic distribution of these pipes is outlined.

Walsh JM. New technology and new initiatives in US workplace testing. Forensic Science International 174(2-3): 120-124, 2008. (18 refs.)

A current perspective of workplace drug testing in the USA is presented covering three major issue areas: (1) epidemiology, (2) new technology and (3) initiatives to reach out and assist small business. First, national illegal drug-use self-reported survey data is compared with national laboratory drug testing results, illustrating a number of inconsistencies. During the 17-year period (1988-2004) the number of laboratory positive test results has decreased by 66% while during the same period self-reported drug-use has increased by 30%. The lack of concurrence between lab results and self-report surveys are examined in light of the typical panel of drugs being tested in U.S. laboratories, the increased specificity of immunoassay screening tests, and the critical issues of adulteration and substitution. Second, a brief review of the state-of-the-science in rapid point-of-collection (POCT) oral fluid drug-testing devices is presented along with some device evaluation findings. In general the window of drug detection in oral fluid is measured in hours. Most of the available oral fluid POCT devices can detect methamphetamine and amphetamines and opiates very well. The ability to detect cocaine appears to vary significantly across devices, while the ability to detect cannabis use is generally poor across all devices. Finally, efforts to reach out and assist small businesses in the development of workplace anti-drug programs are discussed in the context of increasing workplace programs in the European Union.

Warsh CK. Reflection Essay. Teaching alcohol and drug history to undergraduates. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 20(2): 290-295, 2006. (7 refs.)

The author reflects on her experiences in teaching an undergraduate course on the history of alcohol and drugs in Canada. She notes the multiple ways alcohol/drugs are woven throughout the Canadian experience, in respect to the earliest days of the fur trade, with alcohol being the favored instrument of trade which had a devastating impact on Native peoples, to the temperence societies, many of which were imported by American immigrants and became involved in anti-American sentiments, to the way it speaks to issues of gender and national identify, via major sporting teams being sponsored by the leading brewers. The history of alcohol and drugs lends itself to being incorporated in a popular history course.

Weinhauer K. Drug Consumption in London and Western Berlin during the 1960s and 1970s: Local and Transnational Perspectives. The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 20(2): 187-224, 2006. (178 refs.)

Between about 1964 and 1969, drug consumption was embedded into the transnational networks of a countercultural youth underground. In London the high mobility of the underground members was evoking a deeprooted fear of a casual way of life. The West Berlin underground was much more politicized than its London counterpart. In West Berlin until the last third of the 1970s, there was no coordinated anti-drug policy. This changed when the situation of heroin users deteriorated. Politicians as well as the members of the self-help organizations began to realize that a close cooperation and an improved communication were imperative. The situation for heroin users in 1970s London was not that bad when compared to Berlin because a relatively well-functioning civil society already existed, and there were special clinics, the Drug Treatment Centers, and a relatively well-working network of voluntary organizations.

Westermeyer J. A sea change in the treatment of alcoholism. American Journal of Psychiatry 165(9): 1093-1095, 2008. (13 refs.)

This commentary deals with a paper by Gilder et al in this issue that signal to the author's mind significant changes in treating Native American populations, as well as society at large. The significant finding is the relatively high rate of 6-month remission: 59% in an ethnic group whose remission rates 25 years ago ranged from 0% to 21%. A number of factors are suggested as potentially having an impact, including changes in treatment programs that entail a better tailoring of treatment to the special needs of segments of the population, such as women, or adolescents, higher levels of staff development, as well as broader social support within the Native American community as well as the larger society.

White WL. Native American addiction: A response to French (commentary). Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 22(1): 93-97, 2004

French has provided a review of the origin of Native American alcohol problems and the historical and contemporary responses to such problems. This essay addreses and discusses seven key points made by French and expands his discussion of the sources and solutions to Native alcohol problems

White WL. Recovery: Its history and renaissance as an organizing construct concerning alcohol and other drug problems. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 23(1): 3-15, 2005

Characterizing the resolution of severe alcohol and other drug problems in moral (reformation), religious (redemption), psychological (reconstruction), criminal (rehabilitation), or medical (recovery, remission) language reflects larger conceptualizations of the sources, solutions and claims for institutional ownership of alcohol and other drug problems. This article traces the history of the concept of recovery in America as applied to alcohol and other drug problems and describes the addiction field's evolution through problem (pathology) and intervention (treatment) paradigms to the call for a recovery paradigm as its central "governing image."

White WL. Teaching addiction/treatment/recovery history: Relevance, methods and resources. Journal of Teaching in the Addictions 2(2): 33-43, 2003

History can be an empowering tool in the education of those working in addiction-related occupations. This article explores the importance of the historical perspective in addiction studies, outlines principles to guide the presentation of historical data, and reviews some of the best resources that can be used to present historical material in a comprehensive, objective, and engaging manner.

Zeman P. Legislation and practice concerning prosecution of drug offenses in the Czech Republic. Journal of Drug Issues 37(1): 45-72, 2007. (18 refs.)

The article focuses on the history of drug laws in the Czech Republic. It traces drug legislation history in the nation from 1852 to 2005, with emphasis primarily on penal law and government responses to unlawful acts related to drugs. The recent Czech drug legislation, along with relevant court decisions and enforcement practices, are described and discussed. A discussion of several aspects of the Czech drug law, and how they have served to divert criticism for the drug policy debate, is presented.