Serving Substance Abuse Professionals Since 1993

Last Update: 10.10.09

C O R K O N L I N E

powerpoint presentations
CORK database search
resource materials
bibliographies
clinical tools
user services
newsletters
about cork
home

CORK Bibliography: Hallucinogens

58 citations. January 2007 to present

Prepared: September 2009

Andreasen MF; Telving R; Birkler RID; Schumacher B; Johannsen M. A fatal poisoning involving Bromo-Dragonfly. Forensic Science International 183(1-3): 91-96, 2009. (12 refs.)

This paper reports a fatal overdose ease involving the potent hallucinogenic drug Bromo-Dragonfly (1-(8-bromobenzo[1,2-b; 4,5-b']difuran-4-yl)-2-aminopropane). In the present case, an 18-year-old woman was found dead after ingestion of a hallucinogenic liquid. A medico-legal autopsy was performed on the deceased, during which liver, blood, urine and vitreous humour were submitted for toxicological examination. Bromo-Dragonfly was identified in the liver blood using UPLC-TOFMS, and was subsequently quantified in femoral blood (0.0047 mg/kg), urine (0.033 mg/kg) and vitreous humour (0.0005 mg/kg) using LC-MS/MS. Calibration standards were prepared from Bromo-Dragonfly isolated from a bottle found next to the deceased. The structure and purity of the isolated compound were unambiguously determined from analysis of UPLC-TOFMS, GC-MS, HPLC-DAD, H-1 and C-13 NMR data and by comparison to literature data. The autopsy findings were non specific for acute poisoning. However, based on the toxicological findings, the cause of death was determined to be a fatal overdose of Bromo-Dragonfly, as no ethanol and no therapeutics or other drugs of abuse besides Bromo-Dragonfly were detected in the liver, blood or urine samples from the deceased, To our knowledge, this is the first report of quantification of Bromo-Dragonfly in a biological specimen from a deceased person. This case caused the drug to be classified as an illegal drug in Denmark on 5th December 2007.

Agrawal A; Lynskey MT; Madden PAF; Bucholz KK; Heath AC. A latent class analysis of illicit drug abuse/dependence: Results from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Addiction 102(1): 94-104, 2007. (53 refs.)

We examine the co-occurrence of abuse/dependence across different illicit drugs and test associations between these classes and major psychiatric disorders. Latent class analyses were used to characterize polysubstance abuse/dependence (AB/D) in 43 093 individuals who participated in the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Multinomial logistic regression was performed to examine the association between the classes of life-time illicit drug AB/D and gender, age and race, as well as life-time Diagnostic and Statistical Manual version IV (DSM-IV) alcohol abuse/dependence, nicotine dependence, major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social phobia and antisocial personality disorder. Five latent classes were identified: no AB/D (class 1: 92.5%), cannabis AB/D only (class 2: 5.8%), stimulants + hallucinogen AB/D (class 3: 0.6%), prescription drug AB/D (class 4: 0.6%) and polysubstance AB/D (class 5: 0.5%). Major depressive disorder and nicotine dependence were associated most strongly with class 5. Anxiety disorders were associated strongly with the prescription drug AB/D class while alcohol AB/D and ASPD were associated with classes 2, 3, 4 and 5 when compared to the reference class (class 1). Significant heterogeneity exists in this US population for polysubstance AB/D patterns with evidence for a subgroup with high rates of sedative, tranquilizer and opiate AB/D and a history of anxiety disorders, a stimulant/hallucinogens group, a high-risk group with elevated rates of all psychiatric disorders and a milder cannabis AB/D only group. Replication of such classes across other samples has significant implications, such as characterizing risk groups that may be etiologically diverse.

Barry H; Appel J. Early preclinical studies of discriminable sedative and hallucinogenic drug effects. (review). Psychopharmacology 203(2): 193-201, 2009. (80 refs.)

One important technique in behavioral pharmacology is to train laboratory animals to discriminate between a psychoactive drug effect and a nondrug condition. Tests with different drugs have identified several categories of drugs that have different discriminable effects. The two authors describe and discuss the early research on discriminable effects of sedative and hallucinogenic drugs and their acquaintance with each other at Yale University prior to their early and frequent Publications on discriminable drug effects. Herb Barry studied sedative drugs primarily and Jim Appel studied hallucinogenic drugs. Sedative drugs include ethyl alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines. Their discriminable effects are largely attributable to the activation of an inhibitory neurotransmitter, gamma-amino butyric acid. Alcohol has the most pervasive effect in accordance with the high dose required to alter behavior. Hallucinogenic drugs include lysergic acid diethylamide and mescaline. They increase the activity of the neurotransmitter 5-hydroxytryptamine and, perhaps, dopamine in the central nervous system (CNS). In spite of their relatively low concentrations in the brain, both of these neurotransmitters have many important behavioral effects. Various sedative drugs cause a discriminable decrease in the function of the CNS. Different types of sedatives can be discriminated from each other. Indole and phenylethylamine hallucinogens have potent discriminative stimulus properties, which are related to the actions of biogenic amine neurotransmitters in the CNS.

Bullis RK. The "Vine of the Soul" vs. the controlled substances act: Implications of the hoasca case. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 40(2): 193-199, 2008. (3 refs.)

In 2006, the Supreme Court paved the way for the sacramental use of a hallucinogen, hoasca, to be imported, distributed and ingested by a religious group. This case has broad implications for religious freedom for using sacramental psychotropics and how such cases might be decided in the future. This article outlines the arguments used both by the church and by the government. It lists the facts of the cases, explains and analyzes the decision, evaluates the likelihood of expansions of religion-based exceptions for entheogen use in light of the Supreme Court's decision and offers a profile for those groups most likely to receive such an exemption.

da Costa JL; Wang AY; Micke GA; Maldaner AO; Romano RL; Martins HA; Negrini O; Tavares MFM. Chemical identification of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine (DOB). Forensic Science International 173(2/3): 130-136, 2007. (13 refs.)

The consumption of synthetic drugs, generally known as designer drugs, has increased drastically in all parts of the world. Typical constituents of designer synthetic drugs are chemical substances derived from amphetamine but significant differences in effects caused and duration may result. In May, 2005, the civil state police of Sao Paulo seized thirty-one gelatinous capsules containing a very small quantity of a white powder inside (approximately 1.5 mg per capsule). This paper describes the analytical assays that were used to identify the seized material. Preliminary assays using colorimetric tests and high performance thin-layer chromatography indicated that the capsules content could be an amphetamine derivative. In the capillary zone electrophoresis assay, it was possible to observe that the analyzed material had basic characteristics. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed that the compound had the same molecular mass as 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine (DOB) and its identity was confirmed through collision-induced dissociation (CID) experiments. Finally, the comparison of infrared sample spectrum with a spectra library provided further evidence of the DOB presence in the seized material. Although a reference standard material was not available, the information gathered from the different assays allowed the conclusion that the substance was, in fact, DOB, a substance with a powerful hallucinogenic action of proscribed use in the country and which was seized and identified for the first time in Brazil.

Dalgarno P. Subjective effects of Salvia divinorum. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 39(2): 143-149, 2007. (15 refs.)

Salvia divinorum is a hallucinogenic plant native to Mexico, where the Mazatec Indians use it in divinatory rituals as a facilitator for contacting the spirits of the dead. A number of traditions surrounding the ritualistic use of Salvia are still observed. Generally the leaves are chewed for the visionary effects. Salvia has recently been embraced by Western drug cultures, where the traditional methods of ingestion are generally eschewed for the more immediately effective technique of smoking the dried leaves. This article discusses the history and indigenous cultural uses of Salvia before outlining its rediscovery in the 1960s and its subsequent introduction to the Western drug scenes (particularly Britain) since the mid 1990s. Qualitative data from 10 Salvia users were collected by means of email interviews. The participants were asked to provide as in-depth responses as possible. No time or space limit on answers was imposed. Their responses to each question are presented verbatim. The effects of Salvia appear to vary between users and seem sensitive to situational factors. Users who understand something of the ritualistic setting for traditional use would appear to have a fuller experience than those who do not.

Daniulaityte R; Falck RS; Wang J; Carlson RG. Illicit use of pharmaceutical opioids among young polydrug users in Ohio. Addictive Behaviors 34(8): 649-653, 2009. (38 refs.)

This study, conducted in Columbus, Ohio, identified the predictors of current (past 30 day) illicit use of pharmaceutical opioids among young individuals (n = 402) with a history of MDMA/ecstasy use who were recruited in 2002-2003 using respondent-driven sampling. To be eligible, participants had to be 18-30 years old. not involved in a drug abuse treatment, and report MDMA/ecstasy use at least once in the past 6 months. About 81% reported lifetime, and more than 31% reported current illicit use of pharmaceutical opioids. Logistic regression analysis revealed that illicit use of pharmaceutical tranquilizers and pharmaceutical stimulants were the strongest predictors of illicit use of pharmaceutical opioids. Risk of pharmaceutical opioid use was also greater among those who had higher levels of depressive symptoms and reported current use of hallucinogens and inhalants. Our findings suggest that the non-medical use of pharmaceutical opioids is a part of polydrug use practices that often incorporate illicit use of other prescription drugs. The observed relationship between depressive symptoms and illicit use of pharmaceutical opioids may have important implications for prevention programming and should be examined in future research.

Dannaway F. Thunder among the pines: Defining a pan-Asian soma. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 41(1): 67-84, 2009. (77 refs.)

Many ancient cultures and religions engaged in various techniques and used various substances to instigate religious experience and to alter perception. These techniques of psycho-sexual drug yoga reached an unparalleled level of sophistication that arose and was often cloaked in practical terms of alchemy and metallurgy. The Vedic tradition describes this plant-based ritualism as soma, which has been identified by Gordon Wasson as the mushroom Amanita muscaria. This article traces these soma-influenced sects of esoteric Buddhism that exerted influences from India, China and Tibet to Japan. Some of the key components, practices and symbolism are retained despite numerous cultural filters. Japan's tradition of esoteric Buddhism can thus be seen to have preserved and incorporated the soma/amrita mushroom lore into its own traditions of mountain ascetic mystics.

de Graaff B; Bruno R. Tasmanian Drug Trends, 2006. Findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS). NDARC Technical Report No. 273. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (Australia), 2007. (70 refs.)

This report reports data on the use of illicit drugs in Tasmania, derived from an annual survey. Data is provided for each of the major drug classes -- heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine, cannabis, opioids, and other drugs (alcohol, tobacco, ecstasy, benzodiazepines, pharmaceutical stimulants, antidepressants, hallucinogens and inhalants). For each of these there is discussion of price, availability, potency, use patterns, related harms and trends in use. The report concludes with discussion of the associated harms including: blood-borne viral infections, sharing of injecting equipment, locations of injections, injection-related health problems, driving, expenditures on illicit drugs, mental health problems, substance-related aggression and criminal and police activity. The report has 135 figures and tables.

Dyck E. Land of the living sky with diamonds: A place for radical psychiatry? Journal of Canadian Studies 41(3): 42-66, 2007. (79 refs.)

Dr. Humphry Osmond first published the term "psychedelic" in 1957 as a result of an extensive set of clinical investigations with d-lysergic acid diethylmide (LSD) that took place in Saskatchewan in the 1950s. In the post-World War Two period, Saskatchewan became an attractive destination for medical, and in this case psychiatric, researchers who wanted to pursue theoretical and practical investigations that challenged disciplinary boundaries and critically examined the relationship between medicine and the state. Partly as a result of Saskatchewan's post-war political culture, the province became an intellectual sanctuary for medical experimentation that in some other contexts did not gain currency because it appeared too radical. This essay examines the way that psychedelic psychiatry emerged in that province and argues that the social, cultural and political environment in post-war Saskatchewan played a significant role in attracting researchers and supporting LSD research.

Dyck E. Prairies, psychedelics and place: The dynamics of region in psychiatric research. Health & Place 15(3): 888-894, 2009. (41 refs.)

In 1957, the word 'psychedelic' entered the English lexicon from a rather unexpected location: an asylum superintendent working on the Canadian prairies in one of the provincial mental hospitals in Saskatchewan. During the 1950s Saskatchewan-based researchers engaged in political and psychiatric reforms that brought international attention to their work in a relatively isolated geographic location. This article considers the influence of location on the development of a medical theory that challenged prevailing ideas about the causation and treatment of mental illness and addiction. Drawing on perspectives from historians, political scientists, sociologists and geographers. This case study explores the historical meanings of region and place and combines older historiographical traditions, which define region in political terms, with concepts borrowed from other disciplines, which offer a more nuanced view of cultural geography, to examine the development of psychedelic research in the post-World War II period.

Feingold A; Kerr DCR; Capaldi DM. Associations of substance use problems with intimate partner violence for at-risk men in long-term relationships. Journal of Family Psychology 22(3): 429-438, 2008. (28 refs.)

Associations of substance use problems in men -- defined as a man's meeting at least I criterion of dependence on each of a number of substances by his mid-20s -- with their perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV) were examined in an at-risk community sample of 150 men in long-term relationships from their late adolescence to their late 20s. Men who had a problem with substances other than sedatives (especially cannabis and hallucinogens) committed more IPV than did men without such problems. Most of the men who had a problem with marijuana also had an alcohol problem, which explains why alcohol was found to have only an indirect association with IPV. The failure of previous alcohol-use studies to control for co-occurrence of alcohol and marijuana problems may explain the discrepancy with conclusions from past research that alcohol problems contribute directly to the perpetration of IPV.

Furst PT. Rock Crystals and Peyote Dreams: Explorations in the Huichol Universe. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2008

The Huichol people live in west Mexico's Sierra Madre Occidental. The most authentically "traditional" of all Mexican Indians, they have recently become famous for their vivid yarn paintings, their sacramental use of hallucinogenic cactus, and the peyote pilgrimages that take them three hundred miles east from their present homeland into the north-central desert. This collection of essays by one of the foremost experts on hallucinogen-induced vision seeking by Native Americans, explores aspects of the life and culture of the Huichol Indians of Mexico. The author, an anthropologist, weaves personal reminiscences of his early days among the Huichol with discussion of their pre-conquest history and post-conquest adaptation to Mexican society, and with a lively account of the famous pilgrimages Huichols make in search of peyote in distant deserts. The book discusses ritual and shamanism, concepts of soul, beliefs concerning the origins of the world, drawing upon a wealth of finely translated, analyzed myths and narratives, and texts from interviews he conducted with renowned shamans.

Gable RS. Risk assessment of ritual use of oral dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and harmala alkaloids. (review). Addiction 102(1): 24-34, 2007. (76 refs.)

To extend previous reviews by assessing the acute systemic toxicity and psychological hazards of a dimethyltryptamine and beta-carboline brew (ayahuasca/hoasca) used in religious ceremonies. A systematic literature search, supplemented by interviews with ceremony participants. No laboratory animal models were located that tested the acute toxicity or the abuse potential of ayahuasca. Separate animal studies of the median lethal dose of dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and of several harmala alkaloids indicated that a lethal dose of these substances in humans is probably greater than 20 times the typical ceremonial dose. Adverse health effects may occur from casual use of ayahuasca, particularly when serotonergic substances are used in conjunction. DMT is capable of inducing aversive psychological reactions or transient psychotic episodes that resolve spontaneously in a few hours. There was no evidence that ayahuasca has substantial or persistent abuse potential. Long-term psychological benefits have been documented when ayahuasca is used in a well-established social context. A decoction of DMT and harmala alkaloids used in religious ceremonies has a safety margin comparable to codeine, mescaline or methadone. The dependence potential of oral DMT and the risk of sustained psychological disturbance are minimal.

Goel RK. Cigarette prices and illicit drug use: is there a connection? Applied Economics 41(9): 1071-1076, 2009. (14 refs.)

Using cross-sectional data from the United States, this study examines the effects of cigarette prices on the use of marijuana and illicit drugs (including marijuana, cocaine, heroin, inhalants, hallucinogens or any prescription drugs for nonmedical use). Five primary contributions of this work are: First, it provides evidence on the cross-relation between cigarettes and marijuana and illicit drugs. Second, besides the 'standard' control variables used in demand studies (namely, price, education and income), we also control for the influence of employment status and health insurance coverage. Third, this research provides new evidence on the price elasticity of cigarette demand for a recent time period. Fourth, the data used in this study are the latest available. Five, based on our results, implications for drug use policy are provided. Several key points may be noted from our results: (i) Cigarette demand seems to have become elastic in recent years. This is in contrast to findings in earlier years; (ii) Consumers seem to view cigarettes and marijuana as substitutes and cigarettes and illicit drugs as substitutes. (iii) Greater consumer income increases illegal drug use, but does not seem to have a significant impact on smoking and marijuana use; (iv) The unemployment rate and health insurance converge do not seem to significantly affect smoking or drug use; and (v) Policymakers should pay attention to the cross effects among drugs in framing drug use policies.

Gonzalez-Maeso J; Sealfon SC. Psychedelics and schizophrenia. Trends in Neurosciences 32(4): 225-232, 2009. (86 refs.)

Research on psychedelics such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and dissociative drugs such as phencyclidine (PCP) and the symptoms, neurochemical abnormalities and treatment of schizophrenia have converged. The effects of hallucinogenic drugs resemble some of the core symptoms of schizophrenia. Some atypical antipsychotic drugs were identified by their high affinity for serotonin 5-HT2A receptors, which is also the target of LSD-like drugs. Several effects of PCP-like drugs are strongly affected by both 5-HT2A and metabotropic glutamate 2/3 receptor modulation. A serotonin-glutamate receptor complex in cortical pyramidal neurons has been identified that might be the target both of psychedelics and the atypical and glutamate classes of antipsychotic drugs. Recent results on the receptor, signaling and circuit mechanisms underlying the response to psychedelic and antipsychotic drugs might lead to unification of the serotonin and glutamate neurochemical hypotheses of schizophrenia.

Goode E. Moral panics and disproportionality: The case of LSD use in the sixties. Deviant Behavior 29(6): 533-543, 2008. (13 refs.)

Critics of the moral panic dismiss this extremely useful, often-cited, and durable concept on the basis of inapplicable criteria. Drawing on the example of LSD use in the sixties, these critics mistakenly assume that the disaster analogy is apt, insisting that the threat to society, and society's responses, be very much like victims trapped in a burning building. In addition to the fact that the introduction of a new and potentially harmful drug into a society does not entail an on-the-spot threat or reaction, the natural disaster does not typically involve a folk devil or deviant. But the supposed threat of LSD use did entail sensitization, stereotyping, exaggeration, the rush to judgment, sensational anecdotes, and bogus claims. The moral panic notion continues to illuminate social processes and deserves to remain in the sociologist's conceptual tool-box.

Griffin OH; Miller BL; Khey DN. Legally high? Legal considerations of Salvia divinorum. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 40(2): 183-191, 2008. (43 refs.)

The legal status of the hallucinogenic plant Salvia divinorum has been rapidly changing. Legal prohibitions on this plant native to Oaxaca, Mexico have emerged at the state level, a phenomenon that has not occurred since the passage of the Controlled Substances Act (CSA). Included will be a brief description of the plant that has only recently crept into the popular American consciousness, and a review of the different legal mechanisms through which states have controlled the plant and the pending legislation proposing controls. Lastly, the implications of various state laws are discussed.

Grov C; Kelly BC; Parsons JT. Polydrug use among club-going young adults recruited through time-space sampling. Substance Use & Misuse 44(6): 848-864, 2009

Though some researchers have indicated club drug users are more likely to be polydrug users, there remains little known about the prevalence and specific combinations of the substances they use. Between 2004 and 2006, and using time-space sampling, a stratified sample of 400, 18-29-year-old New York City club-going, drug-using young adults were recruited into the Club Drugs and Health Project. Most participants (91.7%) had engaged in polydrug usage and 1,670 combinations of drugs were reported. Ecstasy (86.6% of users) and cocaine (85.7% of users) were the two most-frequently reported club drugs used in combination with other substances. In terms of poly-club drug combinations, ecstasy appeared to be the universal compliment as this drug was most often cited in combinations with other club drugs (specifically ecstasy + ketamine, ecstasy + cocaine, ecstasy + gamma hydroxybutyrate or GHB). Other frequently cited drug combinations included cocaine and marijuana, ecstasy and marijuana, LSD and marijuana, and cocaine and alcohol. These data highlight the need to develop drug health-education and prevention messages targeted at polydrug usage.

Guzman G. Hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico: An overview. Economic Botany 62(3): 404-412, 2008. (37 refs.)

Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview. Psilocybe, with 53 known hallucinogenic species in Mexico, is the most important and diverse group of sacred mushrooms used by Mexican indigenous cultures. Psilocybe caerulescens, known by the present-day Nahuatl Indians as teotlaquilnanacatl, is hypothesized to be the ceremonially-used teonanacatl mushroom cited by Sahagan in the 16th century, the true identity of which has remained obscure for centuries. Correcting a widely disseminated error derived from early published information on Mexican hallucinogenic mushrooms, emphasis is placed on the fact that Panaeolus species have never been used traditionally in Mexico. Reports of the use of species of Amanita, Clavaria, Conocybe, Cordyceps, Dictyophora, Elaphomyces, Gomphus, Lycoperdon, Psathyrella, and Stropharia as sacred or narcotic mushrooms are discussed. A brief history of the discovery of hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico is presented, as well as notes on their taxonomy, distribution, and traditional use in Mexico.

Hagiwara H; Suka Y; Nojima T; Hoshi T; Suzuki T. Second-generation synthesis of salvinorin A. Tetrahedron 65(25): 4820-4825, 2009. (27 refs.)

Functionalization toward total synthesis of the hallucinogenic neoclerodane diterpenoid salvinorin A was accomplished via three double sequences: bis-enol triflate synthesis, palladium-catalyzed double carbonylation to the bis-enol triflate, and samarium diiodide-mediated double conjugate reduction. The configuration at C-12 was controlled by chelation-controlled diastereoselective reduction.

Halpern JH; Sherwood AR; Passie T; Blackwell KC; Ruttenber AJ. Evidence of health and safety in American members of a religion who use a hallucinogenic sacrament. Medical Science Monitor 14(8): SR15-SR22, 2008. (37 refs.)

Background: Ayahuasca is a South American hallucinogenic tea used as a sacrament by the Santo Daime Church, other religious, and traditional peoples. A recent U.S. Supreme Court decision indicates religious ayahuasca use is protected, but little is known about health consequences for Americans. Material/Methods: 32 (out of 40) American members of one branch of the Santo Daime Church were interviewed providing demographic information, physical exam, drug use timeline, a variety of psychological measures, and data about childhood conduct disorder. Subjects were asked about extent of Church participation, what is liked least and most about ayahuasca, and what health benefits or harms they attribute to ayahuasca. Results: Members usually attend services weekly (lifetime 269 +/- 314.7 ceremonies; range 20-1300). Physical exam and test scores revealed healthy subjects. Members claimed psychological and physical benefits from ayahuasca. 19 subjects met lifetime criteria for a psychiatric disorder, with 6 in partial remission, 13 in full remission, and 8 reporting induction of remission through Church participation. 24 subjects had drug or alcohol abuse or dependence histories with 22 in full remission, and all 5 with prior alcohol dependence describing Church participation as the turning point in their recovery. Conclusions: Conclusions should not be extrapolated to hallucinogen abusers of the general public. For those who have religious need for ingesting ayahuasca, from a psychiatric and medical perspective, these pilot results substantiate some claims of benefit, especially if subjects interviewed fully reflect general membership, Further research is warranted with blinded raters, matched comparison groups, and other measures to overcome present study limitations.

Hanson CL; Novilla MLLB; Barnes MD; Eggett D; McKell C; Reichman P et al. Using the rural-urban continuum to explore adolescent alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use in Montana. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse 18(1): 93-105, 2009. (19 refs.)

The purpose of the study was to compare 30-day prevalence of alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use among twelfth-grade students in Montana across a rural-urban continuum during 2000, 2002, and 2004. The methods include an analysis of the Montana Prevention Needs Assessment (N=15,372) using multivariable logistic regression adjusting for risk factors, protective factors, and demographics variables. Findings revealed that adolescent substance use varies across the rural-urban continuum. Risk of cigarette, smokeless tobacco, and alcohol use increased in more rural counties while risk of marijuana, LSD, and any drug decreased in more rural counties. The specificity provided through use of such a classification scheme has important implications for designing effective drug-prevention programs across diverse settings.

Hooker JM; Xu YW; Schiffer W; Shea C; Carter P; Fowler JS. Pharmacokinetics of the potent hallucinogen, salvinorin A in primates parallels the rapid onset and short duration of effects in humans. Neuroimage 41(3): 1044-1050, 2008. (27 refs.)

Salvia divinorum, a mint plant originally used by the Mazatecs of Oaxaca, Mexico in spiritual rituals has gained popularity, in smoked form, as a legal hallucinogen in the United States and Europe. Abuse results in rapid onset and short-lasting effects that include visual hallucinations and motor-function impairment. Salvinorin A, the psychoactive component of S. divinorum, is a uniquely potent agonist at kappa-opioid receptors, targets for new therapeutic drugs. We labeled salvinorin A with C-11 by acylation of salvinorin B with [C-11]-acetyl chloride to study whether its kinetic behavior in the brain parallels its uniquely fast, yet brief physiological effects. Positron emission tomography (PET) studies performed in 6 adult female baboons indicated extremely rapid brain uptake reaching a peak accounting for 3.3% of the total administered dose in 40 s and clearing with a half-life of 8 min. [C-11]-salvinorin A was distributed throughout the brain with the highest concentration in the cerebellum and a notable concentration in the visual cortex, perhaps accounting for its physiological effects when smoked. Naloxone administration did not reduce the overall concentration of [C-11]-salvinorin A significantly nor did it change its regional distribution. Peripheral organ kinetics suggested at least two modes of metabolism and excretion occur: through the renal and biliary systems. Our findings have revealed that the exceptionally rapid uptake and brief duration of salvinorin A in the brain match the time-course of visual hallucinations for S. divinorum when smoked. The effects of salvinorin A may occur at <10 mu g in the human brain, emphasizing its remarkable potency.

Hoover V; Marlowe DB; Patapis NS; Festinger DS; Forman RF. Internet access to Salvia divinorum: Implications for policy, prevention, and treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 35(1): 22-27, 2008. (24 refs.)

This study determined the degree to which Salvia divinorum, a potent hallucinogenic drug that is legal in most U.S. jurisdictions, is being proffered for sale over the Internet and how it is being characterized on popular Web sites. Search results revealed that between one half and two thirds (58%) of the Web sites either offered to sell S. divinorum or linked to other Web sites offering to sell the drug and that more than three quarters (78%) of the Web sites advocated for its use. Many of the statements issued on the Web sites were erroneous or falsely interpreted the absence of scientific data on the possible side effects of S. divinorum as evidence that no side effect exists. The portrayal and availability of S. divinorum on the Internet are similar to those of other illicit and prescription drugs of abuse. However, much less is known about the short- and long-term effects of this novel drug. Consequently, there is little basis to contradict the many Web sites that encourage its use. Implications for drug policy, prevention, and treatment are discussed.

Jermain JD; Evans HK. Analyzing salvia divinorum and its active ingredient salvinorin A utilizing thin layer chromatography and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Journal of Forensic Sciences 54(3): 612-616, 2009. (4 refs.)

In recent years, Salvia divinorum has become a major focus by state legislatures throughout the United States looking to prohibit the sale of the psychoactive plant. After researching testing procedures presented in the literature and those employed by crime laboratories throughout the country, it was decided that thin layer chromatography (TLC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were the methods to use to analyze plant material for salvinorin A. With TLC, salvinorin A was detected from extracted plant material and was easily distinguishable from 13 other Salvia species as well as Cannabis sativa L. (marijuana). When using GC/MS, salvinorin A was best extracted from plant material with chloroform at ambient temperature when using a nonpolar solvent and acetone at ambient temperature when using a polar solvent. By utilizing these techniques, criminalists are now able to confirm the presence of salvinorin A in a submitted plant material suspected to be Salvia divinorum.

Johnson MW; Richards WA; Griffiths RR. Human hallucinogen research: Guidelines for safety. (review). Journal of Psychopharmacology 22(6): 603-620, 2008. (168 refs.)

There has recently been a renewal of human research with classical hallucinogens (psychedelics). This paper first briefly discusses the unique history of human hallucinogen research, and then reviews the risks of hallucinogen administration and safeguards for minimizing these risks. Although hallucinogens are relatively safe physiologically and are not considered drugs of dependence, their administration involves unique psychological risks. The most likely risk is overwhelming distress during drug action ('bad trip'), which could lead to potentially dangerous behaviour such as leaving the study site. Less common are prolonged psychoses triggered by hallucinogens. Safeguards against these risks include the exclusion of volunteers with personal or family history of psychotic disorders or other severe psychiatric disorders, establishing trust and rapport between session monitors and volunteer before the session, careful volunteer preparation, a safe physical session environment and interpersonal support from at least two study monitors during the session. Investigators should probe for the relatively rare hallucinogen persisting perception disorder in follow-up contact. Persisting adverse reactions are rare when research is conducted along these guidelines. Incautious research may jeopardize participant safety and future research. However, carefully conducted research may inform the treatment of psychiatric disorders, and may lead to advances in basic science.

Jones MT. The creativity of Crumb: Research on the effects of psychedelic drugs on the comic art of Robert Crumb. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 39(3): 283-289, 2007. (29 refs.)

This article investigates the influence of perception that is altered by psychedelic drugs on processes of creativity through a case study of the work of well-known comic artist Robert Crumb. Samples of Crumb's work before, during, and after the period of his use of psychedelic drugs are content analyzed and compared according to the categorization offered by Janiger and Dobkin de Rios (1989). The results of the comparison indicate that Robert Crumb's drug use significantly altered the stylistic approach of his artwork not only during the period of his drug use, but long after he had stopped using drugs.

Kinner SSA; Lloyd B. Queensland Drug Trends, 2006. Findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS). NDARC Technical Report No. 272. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (Australia), 2007. (14 refs.)

This report reports data on the use of illicit drugs in Queensland, derived from an annual survey. Data is provided for each of the major drug classes -- heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine, cannabis, opioids, and other drugs (alcohol, tobacco, ecstasy, benzodiazepines, pharmaceutical stimulants, antidepressants, hallucinogens and inhalants). For each of these there is discussion of price, availability, potency, use patterns, related harms and trends in use. The report concludes with discussion of the associated harms including: blood-borne viral infections, sharing of injecting equipment, locations of injections, injection-related health problems, driving, expenditures on illicit drugs, mental health problems, substance-related aggression and criminal and police activity. The report has 127 figures and tables.

Lange JE; Reed MB; Croff JMK; Clapp JD. College student use of salvia divinorum. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 94(1/3): 263-266, 2008. (13 refs.)

Objective: Salvia divinorum (salvia) is a plant that appears to be enjoying increased popularity as a legal hallucinogen in many U.S. jurisdictions. While the popular press has claimed that its use has become widespread, there have been no epidemiological studies published documenting this within the U.S. Method: A sample of college students was randomly drawn from a large public university in the southwestern U.S. and invited to participate in an online survey that included salvia use among a set of other drug use items. Results: From the sample of 1516 college student respondents, a pattern of use emerged that indicates that salvia is indeed becoming a significant member of the list of drugs used, with 4.4% of students reporting using salvia at least once within the past 12 months. Subpopulations that are typically most at risk for drug use within college students (Whites, males, fraternity members, heavy episodic drinkers) also were most likely to use salvia. Conclusions: The results indicate that more research is needed to determine the generalizability of these findings, and identify whether there are any negative consequences experienced either by the user or the community associated with this drug.

Marceaux JC; Dilks LS; Hixson S. Neuropsychological effects of formaldehyde use. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 40(2): 207-210, 2008. (10 refs.)

This study compared five individuals who intentionally ingested formaldehyde (possibly laced with PCP) in marijuana cigarettes to a control group on measures of cognitive ability. Formaldehyde, a major component in embalming fluid, is legal to purchase and possess and has become popular due to its euphoric properties. In significant doses, the chemical is a neurotoxin. The effects of inadvertent exposure are fairly well known, but the effects of intentional ingestion have only recently been investigated. In addition, there has been little research on the effects of formaldehyde use specific to intellectual ability and cognitive intactness. The results of this study indicate intentional ingestion may cause a decline in neuropsychological intactness, as measured by performance on the Shipley Institute of Living Scale.

Martins SS; Copersino ML; Soderstrom CA; Smith GS; Dischinger PC; McDuff DR et al. Risk of psychoactive substance dependence among substance users in a trauma inpatient population. Journal of Addictive Diseases 26(1): 71-77, 2007. (27 refs.)

One measure of a substance's addictive risk is the proportion of users who become dependent. This study evaluates the lifetime and current risk of substance dependence among lifetime substance users among trauma inpatients and provides a relative ranking of addictive risk among the substances. Data on use of 8 substance groups (alcohol, opiates, cannabis, cocaine, other stimulants, sedative-hypnotics, hallucinogens, other drugs) were obtained by interview (Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-III-R) from 1,118 adult trauma inpatients. Prevalence of lifetime dependence among lifetime users ranged from 80.7% for opiates and 70.9% for cocaine to 33.3% for hallucinogens and 26.6% for sedative-hypnotics. The rank order of addictive risk was similar to that found in the general population. Trauma inpatients had a higher absolute addictive risk than the general population, comparable to the risk found in patients in treatment for substance use disorders, suggesting the importance of screening trauma inpatients for substance dependence.

Maxwell JC. Are we becoming more alike? Comparison of substance use in Australia and the United States as seen in the 1995, 1998, 2001 and 2004 national household surveys. Drug and Alcohol Review 27(5): 473-481, 2008. (33 refs.)

Introduction. This paper reports the results of the 1995, 1998, 2001 and 2004 Australian and US household surveys, with emphasis on changes since 2001. Design and Methods. The US survey data were recalculated to match age groups in the Australian data. Statistically significant changes are reported. Differences in prevalence of use by gender within age group were tested for significance. Results. The past-year use of 'any illicit drug', cannabis, cocaine, tranquillisers and injecting drugs decreased between 2001 and 2004 in Australia, but remained stable for all these drugs except ecstasy between 2002 and 2004 in the United States. The use of hallucinogens decreased in both countries. Alcohol and use of many illicit drugs by teenage girls in both countries increased to rates similar to or higher than boys, and teens in both countries reported binge and heavy drinking in the past month. Australians in their 20s had the highest rates of use, but in the United States, past-year use of many drugs was highest among teenagers. Discussion. More treatment services are needed, particularly for people dependent upon non-opiate drugs. The changes in acceptability of use of different drugs and their perceived availability are related to changes in prevalence rates. Even with the similarities in levels of use, there are differences in patterns of use and preferences for certain drugs in each country, and geographic proximity to drug sources is a factor.

McCambridge J; Winstock A; Hunt N; Mitcheson L. 5-year trends in use of hallucinogens and other adjunct drugs among UK dance drug users. European Addiction Research 13(1): 57-64, 2007. (33 refs.)

Aims: To describe and assess trends in the use of hallucinogens and other adjunct drugs over a 5-year period. Design: Repeated-measures cross-sectional survey. Setting and Participants: Annual magazine-based survey targeting people who use drugs in dance contexts. Measurements: Lifetime use prevalence (ever used); age of first use; current use prevalence (any use within the last month), and extent of use within the last month (number of days used) for LSD, psilocybin, ketamine, GHB and nitrates. Findings: Prevalence increases for psilocybin, ketamine, GHB and nitrates use have been detected, with a sharp recent rise in current psilocybin use in 2002-2003 contrasting with more gradual and comprehensive evidence of increased ketamine use throughout the period 1999-2003. The declining prevalence of LSD use in general population surveys is replicated in this sentinel population study. Conclusions: The rise in prevalence of hallucinogen and other adjunct drugs identified among dance drug users may be mirrored by wider prevalence increases among young people with a consequent need to study these trends carefully and to develop effective interventions, where required.

McDonough PC; Holler JM; Vorce SP; Bosy TZ; Magluilo J; Past MR. The detection and quantitative analysis of the psychoactive component of Salvia divinorum, salvinorin A, in human biological fluids using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 32(6): 417-421, 2008. (14 refs.)

Salvia divinorum, a member of the mint plant family, has hallucinogenic properties that have become increasingly sought after by recreational drug users. The main psychoactive component, salvinorin A, has potency comparable to lysergic acid diethylamide. Though still legal to possess in most of the United States and much of Europe, little is known regarding the compound's long-term health effects, addiction liability, and pharmacokinetics. Limited data are available in the scientific literature, and few analytical methods are published for the detection in human biological fluids. These factors contribute to the unfamiliarity of the compound and complicate the method development process necessary to accommodate special requested testing for salvinorin A. A sensitive analytical method for the detection and quantitation of salvinorin A in human biological fluids was developed and validated to resolve analytical shortcomings. The method utilizes a solid-phrase exraction technique coupled with liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectromery opeared in sselectedion monitoring mode. The assay has a linear range of 5.0-100ng/mL with a correlation coefficient of .997. The method has been applied to blood and urine samples successfully and can be used to detect the presence of salvinorin A in forensic testing.

Miller BL; Griffin OH; Gibson CL; Khey DN. Trippin' on Sally D: Exploring predictors of Salvia divinorum experimentation. Journal of Criminal Justice 37(4): 396-403, 2009. (37 refs.)

Salvio divinorum is a new recreational drug where few studies have been conducted on its prevalence and predictors of use. Using a sample of undergraduate students, this study investigated these issues. While a small number reported experimenting with salvia, logistic regression models showed that demographics, marijuana use, and self-control are statistically significant predictors. The effect of gender on use was explained by low self-control; but the effect of marijuana use remained. Results also showed that White males who frequently smoke marijuana and have extremely low self-control are most likely to use salvia. Limitations and future research are discussed.

Montagne M. Drugs on the Internet. I: Introduction and web sites on psychedelic drugs. Substance Use & Misuse 43(1): 17-25, 2008. (4 refs.)

The Internet has greatly expanded access to information about all types of drugs. Web sites devoted to psychedelic drugs are proliferating. These sites vary considerably in terms of the quality and objectivity of information, financial support (non-profit vs. commercial), ideological stance, and the identification of creators and maintainers. Representative sites are reviewed and assessed on criteria of credibility and quality.

Moon C. Northern Territory Drug Trends, 2006. Findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS). NDARC Technical Report No. 271. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (Australia), 2007. (50 refs.)

This report reports data on the use of illicit drugs in New South Wales (NSW), derived from an annual survey. Data is provided for each of the major drug classes -- heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine, cannabis, opioids, and other drugs (alcohol, tobacco, ecstasy, benzodiazepines, pharmaceutical stimulants, antidepressants, hallucinogens and inhalants). For each of these there is discussion of price, availability, potency, use patterns, related harms and trends in use. The report concludes with discussion of the associated harms including: blood-borne viral infections, sharing of injecting equipment, locations of injections, injection-related health problems, driving, expenditures on illicit drugs, mental health problems, substance-related aggression and criminal and police activity. The report has 123 figures and tables.

Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS) 1995-2005. National Admissions to Substance Abuse Treatment Services. DASIS Series S-37. Rockville MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2007. (0 refs.)

Following a summary of the major findings, this report is organized into six chapters. Chapter 1 describes the data set from which the report is derived. Chapter 2 sets forth trends in treatment admissions over a 10 year period, the trends in terms of the primary substance of abuse, the co-occurence of alcohol and drug abuse, admissions rates by state and primary substance, demographic characteriesticsd and socioeconomic status. Chapter 3 reviews characteristics of those admitted in terms of types of drugs uses --alcohol only, alcohol with a secondary drug of abuse, heroin, other opiates, smoked and non-smoked cocaine, marijuana, methamphetamine and other stimulants, tranquilizers, sedatives, hallucinogens, PCP, and inhalants. Chapter 4 summarizes state data trends from 1995-2005. Chapter 5 addresses special interests, adolescents, heroin use by route of administration and anticipated drug-substitution therapy, polydrug abuse, and racial and ethic subgroups. The final chapter considers admissions for detoxification. Data is presented in 107 figures and tables.

Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. The NSDUH Report. Patterns of Hallucinogen Use and Initiation: 2004 and 2005. (July 5, 2007). Rockville MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2007. (6 refs.)

Combined data from SAMHSA's 2004 and 2005 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health indicate that an annual average of 943,000 persons aged 12 or older were recent initiates of hallucinogens (i.e., they had used hallucinogens for the first time in the 12 months before the survey). Of these recent hallucinogen initiates, 52.3% had used psilocybin mushrooms and 42.9% used Ecstasy in the past year. Recent female initiates were more likely than males tohave used Ecstasy (49.5%vs. 37.7%), while recent male initiates were more likely than female counterparts to have used psilocybin (61% vs. 41%)

Public Domain

Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. The NSDUH Report: Use of Specific Hallucinogens: 2006. (February 14, 2008). Rockville MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2008. (6 refs.)

Hallucinogens include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), phencyclidine (PCP), Ecstasy (MDMA), Salvia divinorum, ketamine, peyote, mescaline, and psilocybin (mushrooms). Specific questions on the following hallucinogens were first collected in SAMHSA's 2006 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: ketamine, dimethyltryptamine (DMT), alpha-methyltryptamine (AMT), 5-methoxy-diisopropyltryptamine (5-MeO-DIPT or "Foxy"), and Salvia divinorum. Based on SAMHSA's 2006 National Survey on Drug Use and Health of persons aged 12 or older, 23 million had used LSD, 6.6 million used PCP, 2.3 used ketamine, 1.8 million used Salvia divinorum and 0.7 million had used DMT, AMT, or Foxy at least once in their lifetime. Among youth aged 12 to 17, females were more likely than males to have used Ecstasy in the past year (1.4% vs. 1.0%). Among youth aged 12 to 17, males were more likely than females to have used Salvia divinorum in the past year (0.9% vs. 0.3%). In 2006, young adults aged 18 to 25 were more likely than youths aged 12 to 17 or adults aged 26 or older to be past year users of LSD, Ecstasy, and Salvia divinorum.

Public Domain

Pisetsky EM; Chao YM; Dierker LC; May AM; Striegel-Moore RH. Disordered eating and substance use in high-school students: Results from the youth risk behavior surveillance system. International Journal of Eating Disorders 41(5): 464-470, 2008. (31 refs.)

Objective: To examine the association between disordered eating (fasting, diet product use, and vomiting or laxative use) and use of 10 substances (cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, inhalants, heroin, methamphetamines, ecstasy, steroids, and hallucinogens) in a nationally representative adolescent sample. Method: Participants were 13,917 U.S. high-school students participating in the 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System. Results: Disordered eating was significantly associated with the use of each substance. Using effect size estimates that take base rates into consideration, for female students, associations between substance use and disordered eating were weak for all but three forms of substance use: current smoking, binge drinking, and inhalants. Among male students, strong (marijuana, steroids, and inhalants) or moderate effects (all other substances) were observed. Conclusion: Future research needs to focus on inhalant use and methamphetamine use in males. Increased medical attention should be directed toward adolescents who practice disordered eating behaviors because they are also at elevated risk for using cigarettes, alcohol, inhalants, methamphetamines, and steroids.

Riley SCE; Blackman G. Between prohibitions: Patterns and meanings of magic mushroom use in the UK. Substance Use & Misuse 43(1): 55-71, 2008. (29 refs.)

A survey of magic mushroom use was completed by 174 participants in 2004, a year when the sale of hallucinogenic mushrooms was not illegal in the UK. The data were collected in Edinburgh and Bristol (UK). Participants were a self-selecting convenience sample. Participants tended to be in their 20s, White-British, in education or employed; 64% were male. Participants reported a pattern of infrequent but intense consumption (47% used between 4-12 times/year, average consumption in one setting was 12 g, a high dose). Use was explained in terms of laughing, hallucinations, altering perspective (41-74%), and feelings of being closer to nature (49%). Negative experiences reported included paranoia (35%) and anxiety (32%). Mushroom use was located within a wider recreational drug and alcohol culture. Four focus groups aided the interpretation of the data. Future research is recommended into negative experiences. Implications for policy and harm minimisation literature are discussed.

Roberts J. Albion Dreaming: A Popular History of LSD in Britain. London: Marshall Cavendish, 2008

This book examines at the history of the use of LSD in British society, from its arrival in 1952 to the present day. It traces its early origins, ranging from its wide use as part of clinical care and psychotherapy to its use by the military and intelligence agencies to promote interrogation, to its movement into the larger culture. This included use prior to LSD's becoming illegal, which occurred in 1966, and then LSD's role in shaping the music and fashion worlds of the Sixties and Seventies. The bulk of the book traces the counterculture's fascination with the drug along with the media's condemnation.

Sanders B; Lankenau SE; Bloom JJ; Hathazi D. "Research Chemicals": Tryptamine and phenethylamine use among high-risk youth. Substance Use & Misuse 43(3/4): 389-402, 2008. (42 refs.)

Tryptamines and phenethylamines are two broad categories of psychoactive substances with a long history of licit and illicit use. Profiles of users of recently emerging tryptamines and phenethylamines are nonexistent, however, since surveillance studies do not query the use of these substances. This manuscript describes the types, modes of administration, onset of use, and context of use of a variety of lesser known tryptamines and phenethylamines among a sample of high-risk youth. Findings are based upon in-depth interviews with 42 youth recruited in public settings in Los Angles during 2005 and 2006 as part of larger study examining health risks associated with injecting ketamine. Youth reported that their use of tryptamines and phenethylamines was infrequent, spontaneous, and predominately occurred at music venues, such as festivals, concerts, or raves. Several purchased a variety of these "research chemicals" from the Internet and used them in private locations. While many described positive experiences, reports of short-term negative health outcomes included nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, disorientations, and frightening hallucinations. These findings, based upon pilot study data, move toward an epidemiology of tryptamine and phenethylamine use among high-risk youth.

Saxton C. Review of selected 2008 California legislation: Pental Cont. Chapter 184 and salvia divinorum: Electric kool-aid salvia tests. McGeorge Law Review 40: 509-522, 2009. (161 refs.)

Summary ... Salvia divinorum has been labeled the "the next marijuana" and many consider it to be interchangeable with LSD and psilocybin mushrooms. ... In response to the uncertainty of the drug's long-term effects and the potential for users to injure themselves while under the drug's influence, the Legislature enacted Chapter 184, which prohibits the sale or distribution of salvia divinorum to minors, thus making it harder for those with less mature judgment to obtain and use the plant. ... Oaxaca, Mexico, and the United States A member of the mint family, salvia divinorum is related to a number of species of salvia that can be grown as common garden plants. ... However, Brett - who may have been suffering from depression - continued using salvia divinorum. ... Furthermore, supporters believe that salvia divinorum's popularity will likely increase regardless of legislation concerning its sale and distribution. ... After all, AB 259, the bill that was eventually enacted as Chapter 184, would have classified salvia divinorum and Salvinorin A as Schedule I controlled substances, "criminalizing the unlawful possession, possession for sale, and sale of the substances." ... Without empirical evidence that salvia divinorum is addictive or physically harmful, critics contend that legislation creating civil regulation or educational programs would be a more appropriate response to any actual or potential threat salvia divinorum poses.

Sessa B. Is it time to revisit the role of psychedelic drugs in enhancing human creativity? (editorial). Journal of Psychopharmacology 22(8): 821-827, 2008. (44 refs.)

Human creativity is difficult to define and measure, but it is undoubtedly an important cognitive process. This makes it an interesting challenge for modern neuroscientific exploration - especially given the current interest in developing cognitive enhancers for commercial and clinical uses. There are similarities between the typical traits of creative people and the subjective psychological characteristics of the psychedelic (hallucinogenic) drug experience. This phenomenon was studied in a number of small trials and case studies in the 1960s. Results were inconclusive, and the quality of these studies - by modern research standards - was merely anecdotal. Nevertheless, with today's current renaissance in psychedelic drug research and the growing interest in cognitive enhancing drugs, now may be the time to re-visit these studies with contemporary research methods.

Simmons LA; Havens JR; Whiting JB; Holz JL; Bada H. Illicit drug use among women with children in the United States: 2002-2003. Annals of Epidemiology 19(3): 187-193, 2009. (40 refs.)

PURPOSE: Given research that shows youth exposed to maternal addict ion have increased rates of cognitive, socioemotional, and behavioral problems, we examined the prevalence and correlates of past year illicit drug abuse or dependence among women with children younger than 18 years of age in the home to identify maternal risk factors. METHODS: Data were from the 2002 and 2003 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, a nationally representative sample of the U.S. civilian population. The current analysis utilized a subsample of women (N = 19,300) who reported having children Younger than 18 years in the home. Past year abuse or dependence on cocaine, heroin, marijuana, stimulants, and hallucinogens as well as nonmedical use of prescription medications were assessed. RESULTS: The prevalence of illicit drug abuse or dependence was 1.9%. Mothers reporting drug abuse or dependence had increased odds of being unmarried, controlling for other demographics. They also were more likely to report stress, poorer health status, and meet the criteria for serious mental illness (SMI). CONCLUSIONS; Prevention and intervention strategies should focus on developing and tooting methods to screen for both risk factors associated with maternal drug abuse and actual substance abuse in primary and emergency care settings to reduce youth exposure and improve child developmental outcomes.

Stone AL; O'Brien MS; De la Torre A; Anthony JC. Who is becoming hallucinogen dependent soon after hallucinogen use starts? Drug and Alcohol Dependence 87(2/3): 153-163, 2007. (18 refs.)

This study, based upon epidemiological survey data from the United States (U.S.) National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) from 2000 to 2001, presents new estimates for the risk of developing a hallucinogen dependence syndrome within 24 months after first use of any hallucinogen (median elapsed time similar to 12 months). Subgroup variations in risk of becoming hallucinogen dependent also are explored. Estimates are derived from the NHSDA representative samples of non-institutionalized U.S. residents ages 12 and older (n = 114,241). A total of 2035 respondents had used hallucinogens for the first time within 24 months prior to assessment. An estimated 2-3% of these recent-onset hallucinogen users had become dependent on hallucinogens, according to the NHSDA DSM-IV computerized diagnostic algorithm. Controlling for sociodemographic and other drug use covariates, very early first use of hallucinogens (age 10-11 years) is associated with increased risk of hallucinogen dependence (p < 0.01). Excess risk of developing hallucinogen dependence was found in association with recent-onset use of mescaline; excess risk also was found for recent-onset users of ecstasy and of PCP. This study's evidence is consistent with prior evidence on a tangible but quite infrequent dependence syndrome soon after the start of hallucinogen use; it offers leads that can be confirmed or disconfirmed in future investigations.

Tendler S; May D. The Brotherhood of Eternal Love: From Flower Power to Hippie Mafia. The Story of LSD Counter Culture. 2nd edition. London: Cyan Communications, 2007

This is a reprint of the authors' 1984 exploration of the drug underground of the 1960s, which has become a classic in the field. Crime reporter Tendler and journalist May combined to produce one of the first extensive and in-depth histories of LSD, from its discovery by Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman in 1943, through various efforts by the CIA in the 1950s in their search for the ultimate truth serum, through its manufacture and distribution into the Hippie communities of the 1960s by psychedelic supporters such as Augustus Owsley III, Grateful Dead-patron and master drug manufacturer. But while the media of the time focused on Timothy Leary as the main proponent of LSD, Tendler and May focus on the real key players: The Brotherhood of Eternal Love, a group of young drifters based in Laguna Beach, Calif., who started out as "missionaries" spreading the gospel of altered consciousness into big-business drug distributors who by the mid-1970s had reaped "$200 million through an estimated membership of 750 people." Here the authors chart the Brotherhood's expansion from California to Hawaii to Afghanistan, and its pursuit by international narcotics police, in what still remains a great combination of social history and true crime suspense.

Trichter S; Klimo J; Krippner S. Changes in spirituality among ayahuasca ceremony novice participants. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 41(2): 121-134, 2009. (45 refs.)

Ayahuasca, a hallucinogenic plant brew from the Amazon basin used as part of healing ceremonies by the local indigenous people of the region for centuries, is now being consumed by growing numbers of people throughout the world. Anecdotal evidence and previous research suggest that there are spiritual effects experienced among participants who take part in ayahuasca ceremonies. The current study examined whether novice participants' spirituality was affected through participation in an ayahuasca ceremony, and if so, how. A mixed-design method was used, comparing those participating in an ayahuasca ceremony to those who did not participate. This investigation used the Peak Experience Profile, the Spiritual Well-being Scale, and the Mysticism Scale as quantitative measures. Participant interviews and written accounts of ceremony experiences were analyzed. Results showed that neither the SWB score nor the M-Scale score increased significantly after participating in an ayahuasca ceremony. However, it was found that the higher the PEP score, the greater the positive change in SWB and M-Scale scores. Qualitative data revealed common spiritual themes in many of the participants' interviews, and written accounts. Experiential differences were displayed within the ayahuasca ceremony group, warranting continued investigation into, and identification of, various confounding variables that prompt reported changes in spirituality within some participants while not in others.

Vidal C; Skripuletz T. Bupropion interference with immunoassays for amphetamines and LSD. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 29(3): 373-375, 2007. (6 refs.)

A 50-year-old male patient suddenly had lost consciousness, although he had previously been healthy. On arrival at hospital seizures arose. The authors investigated a urine sample of the patient, and performed toxicological drug screening with immunochemical Cloned Enzyme Donor Immunoassay (CEDIA) assays. Positive findings for amphetamines and LSD could not be confirmed. Using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS), the authors identified bupropion, a drug used to aid in smoking cessation, as the interfering compound, which may cause false-positive results for amphetamines and LSD using the CEDIA assays.

Wagner GA; Stempliuk VD; Zilberman ML; Barroso LP; de Andrade AG. Alcohol and drug use among university students: gender differences. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 29(2): 123-129, 2007. (34 refs.)

Objective: This study compared the pattern of alcohol, legal and illegal drugs use among students of the Universidade de Sjo Paulo (Brazil) in 1996 and 2001. Method: Samples of 2.564 (1996) and 2.837 (2001) students answered a questionnaire proposed by the World Health Organization, which characterizes the consumption of alcohol, legal and illegal drugs in lifetime, in the last 12 months and in the last 30 days. Results: Men showed a significant increase in lifetime use of tobacco (44.8% to 50.9%), marijuana (33.7% to 39.5%) and hallucinogens (6.6% to 14.1%) between 1996 and 2001. No significant change was observed among women between 1996 and 2001 in tranquilizer use. Concerning the consumption reported in the last 12 months, both genders displayed significant increases in the consumption of marijuana (22.3% to 27.1% for men and 12.9% to 16.9% for women), amphetamines (1.9% to 5.0% for men and 3.4% to 5.6% for women), and inhalants (9.8% to 15.7% for men and 5.4% to 10. 6% for women). The greatest gender difference was observed in consumption reported in the last 30 days with significant increases in male use of tobacco (19.6% to 23.5%), marijuana (15.8% to 20.5%), amphetamines (1.1% to 3.2%), and inhalants (4.0% to 7.9%). Substance use reported in the last 30 days remained stable among women between the 2 surveys. Conclusion: Rates of substance use among university students increased. These gender differences in substance consumption should be taken into account in the development of preventive and treatment strategies for undergraduate university students.

Winkelman MJ; Roberts TB, eds. Psychedelic Medicine: New Evidence for Hallucinogenic Substances as Treatments (two volumes). Westport CT: Praeger Perspectives, 2007. (Chapter refs.)

Psychedelic substances present in nature have been used by humans across hundreds of years to produce mind-altering changes in thought, mood, and perception -- changes otherwise only rarely experienced, be it in dreams, religious exaltation, or psychosis. U.S. scientists were studying the practical and therapeutic uses for hallucinogens, including LSD and mescaline, in the 1950s and 1960s. The government took steps to ban all human consumption of hallucinogens, by the 1970s, all human testing was stopped. Medical concerns were less the issue, than social issues and those who advocated free use of hallucinogens by all who desired. The FDA has again begun approving hallucinogenic research using human subjects. In these two volumes, researchers explain the testing and research underway to use - under the guidance of a trained provider - psychedelic substances for better physical and mental health, and their ability to treat disorders ranging from arthritis to post traumatic stress disorder. Spiritual uses are also addressed and the perceived benefits described. Medical and legal issues for therapeutic uses are also presented. The psychedelic drugs described include: LSD, ayahuasca, psilocybin, peyote, MDMA/ecstasy, marijuana. Volume I, deals with the medical use of psychedelic drugs and the social, clinical and legal perspectives. Volume II deals with the use of psychedelics in addiction medicine as well as their use in religious and mystical traditions. Appendices list a sample of sites where medical research with psychedelics is underway, and describe prominent advocates and organizations pushing to further this research.

Wu LT; Ringwalt CL; Mannelli P; Patkar AA. Hallucinogen use disorders among adult users of MDMA and other hallucinogens. American Journal on Addictions 17(5): 354-363, 2008. (53 refs.)

We investigated the prevalence, patterns, and correlates of past-year DSM-IV hallucinogen use disorders (HUDs) among past-year users of MDMA and other hallucinogens from a sample of Americans 18 or older (n = 37,227). Users were categorized as MDMA users and other hallucinogen users. Overall, one in five (20%) MDMA users and about one in six (16%) other hallucinogen users reported at least one clinical feature of HUDs. Among MDMA users, prevalence of hallucinogen abuse, subthreshold dependence, and dependence was 4.9%, 11.9%, and 3.6%, respectively. The majority with hallucinogen abuse displayed subthreshold dependence. Most with hallucinogen dependence exhibited abuse. Subthreshold hallucinogen dependence is relatively prevalent and represents a clinically important subgroup that warrants future research and consideration in a major diagnostic classification system.

Wu LT; Ringwalt CL; Weiss RD; Blazer DG. Hallucinogen-related disorders in a national sample of adolescents: The influence of ecstasy/MDMA use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 104(1-2): 156-166, 2009. (62 refs.)

Aims: To present the prevalence and correlates of hallucinogen use disorders (HUDS: abuse or dependence) and subthreshold dependence. Methods: The study sample included adolescents aged 12-17 years (N = 55,286) who participated in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2004-2006). Data were collected with a combination of computer-assisted personal interviewing and audio computer-assisted self-interviewing. Results: The overall prevalence of HUDs among adolescents was low (<1%). However, more than one in three (38.5%) MDMA users and nearly one in four(24.1%) users of other hallucinogens reported HUD symptoms. MDMA users were more likely than users of other hallucinogens to meet criteria for hallucinogen dependence: 11% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 8.24-14.81) vs. 3.5% (95% CI: 2.22-5.43). Compared with hallucinogen use only, subthreshold dependence was associated with being female (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.8 [95% CI: 1.08-2.89]), ages 12-13 years (AOR = 3.4 [1.64-7.09]), use of hallucinogens >= 52 days (AOR = 2.4 [1.66-6.92]), and alcohol use disorder (AOR = 1.8 [1.21-2.77]). Compared with subthreshold dependence, abuse was associated with mental health service use (AOR = 1.7 [1.00-3.00]) and opioid use disorder (AOR = 4.9 [1.99-12.12]); dependence was associated with MDMA use (AOR = 2.2 [1.05-4.77]), mental health service use (AOR = 2.9 [1.34-6.06]),and opioid use disorder (AOR = 2.6 [1.01-6.90]). MDMA users had a higher prevalence of most other substance use disorders than users of non-hallucinogen drugs. Conclusions: Adolescent MDMA users appear to be particularly at risk for exhibiting hallucinogen dependence and other substance use disorders.

Yan F; Bikbulatov RV; Mocanu V; Dicheva N; Parker CE; Wetsel WC et al. Structure-based design, synthesis, and biochemical and pharmacological characterization of novel Salvinorin A analogues as active state probes of the kappa-opioid receptor. Biochemistry 48(29): 6898-6908, 2009. (41 refs.)

Salvinorin A, the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen, has attracted an increasing amount of attention since the kappa-Oploid receptor (KOR) was identified as its principal molecular target by us [Roth, B. L., et al. (2002) Proc. Nail. Acad. Science. U.S.A. 99 11934-11939]. Here we report the design, synthesis, and biochemical characterization of novel, irreversible, salvinorin A-derived ligands suitable as active state probes of the KOR. On the basis of prior substituted cysteine accessibility and molecular modeling studies, C315(7.38) was chosen as a potential anchoring point for covalent labeling of salvinorin A-derived ligands. Automated docking of a series of potential covalently bound ligands suggested that either a haloacetate moiety or other similar electrophilic groups could irreversibly bind with C315(7.38). 22-Thiocyanatosalvinorin A (RB-64) and 22-chlorosalvinorin A (RB-48) were both found to be extraordinarily potent and selective KOR agonists in vitro and in vivo. As predicted on the basis of molecular modeling studies, RB-64 induced wash-resistant inhibition of binding with a strict requirement for a free cysteine in or near the binding pocket. Mass spectrometry (MS) studies utilizing synthetic KOR peptides and RB-64 Supported the hypothesis that the anchoring residue was C315(7.38) and suggested one biochernical mechanism for covalent binding. These studies provide direct evidence of the presence of a free cysteine in the agonist-bound state of the KOR and provide novel insights into the mechanism by which salvinorin A binds to and activates the KOR.

Yuruktumen A; Karaduman S; Bengi F; Fowler J. Syrian rue tea: A recipe for disaster. Clinical Toxicology 46(8): 749-752, 2008. (22 refs.)

Peganum harmala, commonly called Syrian rue, is native to countries around the Mediterranean sea and western United States. Known for its sedative effects when consumed by farm animals, its seeds have stimulant and hallucinogenic effects at low doses (3-4 g when eaten) in humans. Its active ingredients harmaline and harmine have monoamine oxidase inhibitor properties. A 41-year-old female prepared a hot drink by boiling approximately 100 g of P. harmala seeds in water (10-20 times the recommended dose for calming one's nerves). Upon presentation to the emergency department, she was unconscious and had hypertension, tachycardia, and tachypnea. Hepatic and renal function markers were grossly elevated. After intubation, she improved with supportive care over the course of five days. Her level of consciousness, renal and hepatic markers gradually returned to normal. Poisoning with high doses of Peganum harmala can be life-threatening, although patients usually recover with supportive therapy alone.