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CORK Bibliography: Gambling

139 citations. October 2007 to present

Prepared: June 2008

Afifi TO; Cox BJ; Katz LY. The associations between health risk behaviours and suicidal ideation and attempts in a nationally representative sample of young adolescents. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 52(10): 666-674, 2007. (16 refs.)

Objective: To examine associations between health risk behaviours and suicidal ideation and attempts in Canadian adolescents aged 12 to 13 years. Young adolescents think about and attempt suicide. However, most existing research on suicide has been conducted on individuals aged 15 years and older. Method: The present study examined a nationally representative Canadian sample of adolescents aged 12 to 13 years (n = 2090). Health risk behaviours included disruptive (shoplifting, physical fighting, damaging property, fighting with a weapon, carrying a knife, and gambling), sexual (petting below the waist and sexual intercourse), and substance use behaviours (smoking cigarettes, consuming alcohol, marijuana or hash, and glue or solvents). Unadjusted and adjusted (for all significant health risk behaviour and psychiatric symptoms) models were tested. Results: All health risk behaviours were common among male and female adolescents. In unadjusted models, almost all health risk behaviours were associated with suicidal ideation and attempts among adolescent boys. In adjusted models, only damaging property, sexual intercourse, and smoking cigarettes remained statistically associated with suicidal ideation, while smoking cigarettes and using marijuana or hash remained statistically associated with suicide attempts among adolescent boys. All health risk behaviours were statistically associated with suicidal ideation and attempts among female adolescents in unadjusted models. In adjusted models, only carrying a knife remained statistically associated with suicidal ideation, while shoplifting and gambling remained statistically associated with suicide attempts among adolescent girls. Conclusions: Health risk behaviours among young adolescents are associated with suicidal ideation and attempts among young adolescents. Recognizing health risk behaviours among young adolescents may be one means of understanding who among them is at increased risk of suicidality.

Alvarez-Moya EM; Jimenez-Murcia S; Granero R; Vallejo J; Krug I; Bulik CM; Fernandez-Aranda F. Comparison of personality risk factors in bulimia nervosa and pathological gambling. Comprehensive Psychiatry 48(5): 452-457, 2007. (50 refs.)

Objective: The objective of the study was to assess the predictive value of personality profiles to classify individuals with bulimia nervosa (BN), pathological gambling (PG), and a nonpsychiatric comparison group while controlling for sex. Methods: The sample comprised 270 BN (241 women, 29 men), 429 PG (42 women, 387 men), and 96 comparison (nonpsychiatric) Subjects (35 women, 61 men). All patients were consecutively admitted to our Psychiatry Department and were diagnosed according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision criteria. We administered the Temperament and Character Inventory-Revised as well as other clinical indices. Multinomial and binary logistic regression models adjusted for age and stratified by sex were used to assess the predictive value of personality in relation to group status. Results: In comparison to controls, high Novelty Seeking (P <.001) was specifically associated with a diagnosis of PG. Independently of sex, low Self-Directedness was associated with both BN (P <.001) and PG (P <.001). Some sex-specific differences were also observed; namely, women with BN and PG displayed higher Harm Avoidance and Cooperativeness than control women, whereas men with PG reported higher Reward Dependence and Persistence than control men. Conclusions: Our results suggested that, whereas there are some shared personality traits between BN and PG when compared with healthy controls, there are also some sex- and diagnostic-specific personality traits that weigh against the consideration of BN as an impulse control disorder.

Ariyabuddhiphongs V; Chanchalermporn N. A test of social cognitive theory reciprocal and sequential effects: Hope, superstitious belief and environmental factors among lottery gamblers in Thailand. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(2): 201-214, 2007. (37 refs.)

This study tested social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) hypotheses of reciprocal and sequential effects among person, environment variables and behavior. The study examined the impact of hope, superstitious belief and environmental factors on the frequency, amounts of lottery gambling and chasing of particular numbers among Thai lottery gamblers. One hundred and fifty gamblers who visited two temples in Bangkok to search for number clues before buying tickets and 150 gamblers who simply bought lottery tickets from the stalls were recruited for the study. Models were constructed to test the effect of hope, superstitious belief and environmental factors on gambling behavior, and the reciprocal effect of gambling behavior on hope, superstitious belief and environmental factors. Results confirmed the theoretical reciprocal effects. A sequential effect model showing the effects of environmental factors on superstitious belief, hope and gambling behavior was also constructed and hope was found to be the result of superstitious belief. To reduce lottery gambling, the players need to be warned of their distorted hope and the small chance of winning lottery.

Bagby RM; Vachon DD; Bulmash EL; Toneatto T; Quilty LC; Costa PT. Pathological gambling and the five-factor model of personality. Personality and Individual Differences 43(4): 873-880, 2007. (28 refs.)

The goal of this investigation was to examine the personality differences between non-treatment seeking pathological gamblers (PGs) and non-pathological gamblers (NPGs) using the domain and facet traits of the five-factor model of personality (FFM), as measured by the NEO PI-R. Compared to NPGs, PGs scored significantly higher on the neuroticism domain and significantly lower on the conscientiousness domain. Significant differences between PGs and NPGs also emerged for three of four FFM facet traits associated with impulsivity, with PGs scoring higher on impulsiveness and lower on self-discipline and deliberation facets. Both PGs and NPGs had equally high scores (relative to the norm) on excitement-seeking, the fourth facet associated with impulsivity, suggesting that excitement-seeking characterizes gambling behavior rather than pathological gambling. The present findings suggest that the overall personality profile of the PG is one that combines high impulsivity with emotional vulnerability. Importantly, the results also suggest that excitement-seeking, a personality construct akin to sensation-seeking, may not be a specific marker of PG but rather a characteristic common to all those who gamble.

Bagby RM; Vachon DD; Bulmash E; Quilty LC. Personality disorders and pathological gambling: A review and re-examination of prevalence rates. Journal of Personality Disorders 22(2): 191-207, 2008. (40 refs.)

The current study reviews and reexamines the association between pathological gambling and personality disorders (PDs). To date, the majority of investigations have examined the prevalence of PDs in a single group of treatment-seeking pathological gamblers (PGs); very few of these studies included a comparison group, and even fewer compared PGs to nonpathological gamblers who, in contrast to nongamblers, resemble PGs in their attraction to and engagement in gambling behavior. The current study included a sample composed of nontreatment-seeking pathological gamblers and a comparison group of nonpathological gamblers (NPGs); these participants completed a self-report instrument (SCID-II/PQ) and were administered a structured clinical interview (SCID-II) designed to assess PDs. Compared to the SCID-II, the SCID-II/PQ produced significantly higher PD prevalence rate estimates and symptom endorsements. Although the pattern of specific PD prevalence and symptom endorsement varied somewhat across the instruments, PGs consistently displayed significantly higher levels of borderline PD than NPGs; this pattern endured even after controlling for Axis I disorders and overlap among Axis 11 PDs.

Bandini F; Primavera A; Pizzorno M; Cocito L. Using STN DBS and medication reduction as a strategy to treat pathological gambling in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders 13(6): 369-371, 2007. (11 refs.)

We describe two patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) who developed clinical criteria of pathological gambling addiction in the setting of increased dopamine replacement therapy (levodopa and dopamine agonist medications). The second patient showed also signs of dopamine dysregulation syndrome, with an addiction to dopaminergic medication. Neither patients responded to the standard therapy for gambling behavior, but dramatically improved after bilateral subthalamic nucleus (STN) deep brain stimulation (DBS) and early postoperative withdrawal of dopaminergic therapy. The possible therapeutic role of subthalamic nucleus deep brain Stimulation (STN-DBS) on such a disabling behavior needs to be investigated prospectively.

Barry DT; Maciejewski PK; Desai RA; Potenza MN. Income differences and recreational gambling. Journal of Addiction Medicine 1(3): 145-153, 2007

The purpose of this study was to examine the correlates of recreational gambling in lower-income compared with middle/higher-income groups. We examined, by logistic regression, a nationally representative U.S. adult sample (n = 2417) from the 1998 Gambling Impact and Behavior Study (GIBS) to investigate the influence of income on the association between recreational gambling and general health and psychosocial measures, and on gambling attitudes and behaviors among recreational gamblers. An interaction model testing for factors that distinguished past-year recreational gamblers from nongamblers across income groups was significant at P < 0.05 for the variable of lifetime bankruptcy. Among the lower-income group, recreational gamblers compared with nongamblers were not more likely to report lifetime bankruptcy (odds ratio [OR] = 0.82; P = 0.58). Among the middle/higher-income group, recreational gambling was positively associated with bankruptcy (OR = 2.57; P < 0.01). Lower-income gamblers were less likely than middle/higher-income gamblers to report large maximal daily wins (P < 0.001) or losses (P < 0.001) and engage in strategic forms of gambling (P < 0.001). Middle/higher-income recreational gamblers perform different types of gambling and exhibit heavier gambling and higher rates of bankruptcy than lower-income recreational gamblers. Public health guidelines and interventions related to gambling should consider the influence of income.

Bemhard BJ. Sociological perspectives on the pathological gambling entry in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Behavioral Scientist 51(1): 8-32, 2007. (48 refs.)

This article summarizes the results of a qualitative content analysis of historical literature on problem gamblers in America and England. Using the pathological gambling entry in the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as a framework, it is revealed that all of the diagnostic criteria have a long and documented history. The findings here suggest that in a number of important ways, researchers have merely medicalized their previous moral objections to gambling behavior. Clinical implications and future research implications are discussed.

Bernhard BJ. Sociological speculations on treating problem gamblers: A clinical sociological imagination via a bio-psycho-social-sociological model. American Behavioral Scientist 51(1): 122-138, 2007. (20 refs.)

This article explores the potential of a bio-psycho-social-sociological model as it pertains to C. Wright Mills's articulation of a sociological imagination and, especially, how these formulations may be used to help problem gamblers and their families. This tool might be seen as a "clinical sociological" one that complements, rather than replaces, existing psychologically oriented approaches. A number of speculations about the potential utility of this model are presented, and suggestions are outlined for future clinical sociological study of problematic gambling behaviors.

Bernhard BJ; Preston FW. Sociologies of problem gambling. (editorial). American Behavioral Scientist 51(1): 3-7, 2007. (6 refs.)

Blankenship J; Starling R; Woodall WG; May PA. Gambling and alcohol use: Trends in the state of New Mexico from 1996-1998. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(2): 157-174, 2007. (31 refs.)

Alcohol consumption and its relationship to gambling was examined in a statewide New Mexico survey in 1996 and 1998. Data regarding both drinking habits and gambling behavior were obtained from a stratified random sample of the adult population (N = 2674) across the entire State of New Mexico via phone survey. These surveys were carried out shortly after a period when New Mexico experienced an initial surge in the legalized gaming industry. Fifty-seven percent of survey respondents reported drinking in the past month, while 43.1% reported no drinking in the past 30 days. Results show that while the number of days in the past 30 that a person drinks is significantly correlated with some types of gambling behavior (e. g., in 1998, drinking more days was associated with more card gambling and sports gambling), it is the amount of alcohol consumed per occasion that is associated with more gambling behavior. For example, in both 1996 and 1998, drinking more per occasion was associated with more sports betting, dice gambling, number/lottery gambling, gambling using machines, and paper game gambling (e. g., pull tabs, punchboard). These results suggest that problem gambling behavior is not affected as much by the number of occasions on which one consumes alcohol, as by the amount of alcohol consumed per occasion.

Bondolfi G; Jermann F; Ferrero F; Zullino D; Osiek CH. Prevalence of pathological gambling in Switzerland after the opening of casinos and the introduction of new preventive legislation. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 117(3): 236-239, 2008. (19 refs.)

Objective: This survey aimed to evaluate the prevalence of pathological gambling (PG) in the Swiss population in 2005 and the link between PG and alcohol abuse. This replication study made it possible to compare the prevalence rates of PG measured before and after the introduction of casinos and new preventive legislation. Method: A total of 2803 telephone interviews were completed using standardized assessment instruments for identifying gamblers (South Oaks Gambling Screen) and alcohol abuse (CAGE). Results: The past-year prevalence rates were 0.8% for problem and 0.5% for PG. No relationship was found between alcohol abuse and gambling behaviour. The past-year prevalence of disordered gambling did not change between 1998 and 2005. Conclusion: Despite widespread openings of casinos in Switzerland since 2002, the prevalence estimates of past-year disordered gambling have remained stable. The discussion focuses on different factors (social measures, legal obligations and social adaptational capacities) that may account for the stabilization of prevalence estimates.

Borras L; Huguelet P. Schizophrenia and pathological gambling. American Journal on Addictions 16(4): 269-271, 2007. (15 refs.)

High rates of pathological gambling are found in psychiatric populations, including those it,with mood or substance use disorders. The extent to which individual with schizophrenia exhibit the symptoms of pathological gambling has not been adequately investigated. This paper examines the case of a 40-year-old schizophrenic female with a four-year history of gambling. The characteristics of possible interactions between pathological gambling and schizophrenic symptom profiles are outlined in order to propose better treatments for this group of patients.

Boudreau B; Poulin C. The south oaks gambling screen-revised adolescent (SOGS-RA) revisited: A cut-point analysis. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(3): 299-308, 2007. (25 refs.)

The lack of a criterion validity gold standard defining adolescent pathological gambling represents a major limitation of the adolescent gambling literature. The present study employed Receiver Operating Characteristic curve analysis (ROC) to examine the performance of the South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised Adolescent (SOGS-RA) recommended cut-point of 4 against two-proxy gold standards: self-identified need for, or receipt of, help for gambling. Logistic regression analysis examined the correlates of self-identified need for help with gambling. The sample was comprised of 12990 adolescents from Atlantic Canada whose average age was 15 years and 50% of whom were male. The SOGS-RA performed as well or better with these proxy gold standards than with proxies used in previous studies. We concluded that the proxy gold standards based on self-identified need for or receipt of help represent a pragmatic solution to the lack of an adolescent-specific definition of problem or pathological gambling. Students in grade seven and SOGS-RA scores of 4 or greater were independent predictors of self-identifying a need for help.

Boughton R; Falenchuk O. Vulnerability and Comorbidity factors of female problem gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(3): 323-334, 2007. (40 refs.)

This study helps to address a deficiency of gender-specific research into problem gambling. It focuses on the gambling behaviors, family and personal histories and comorbid psychological disorders of 365 female gamblers from across Ontario, Canada, who responded to a mail-in survey. Specifically, this study looks at rates of depression and anxiety, concurrent struggles with other behaviors (such as alcohol and drug use, disordered eating, overspending and criminal activity) and abuse history reported by female gamblers. The reported rates are considerably higher than for the general female population. The findings of this study agree with previous research. They suggest that prevention strategies and treatment practices for female problem gamblers should take into account women's mental health, addiction and trauma history as contributing factors in the development of problematic gambling.

Brandstatter E; Gussmack M. Knowledge-based choice. Psychological Reports 101(3, Part 1): 987-994, 2007. (7 refs.)

This study tested the distinction between knowledge-based choices and gambling decisions. Gambling decisions contain stated probabilities, and success depends on chance only. In knowledge-based decisions, in contrast, the probabilities are usually unknown and the outcomes of a choice depend on a person's ability or knowledge. Three different theoretical accounts were used to predict knowledge-based choices: prospect theory, the competence hypothesis, and probability-focused reasoning. Students (64 women, 93 men, M=22.4 yr.) chose between a knowledge bet and a sure gain of equal expected value. Analysis showed people prefer a knowledge bet over the sure gain, if the probability of winning is high-in contrast to prospect theory, which predicts the opposite. Both the competence hypothesis and probability focused reasoning can explain these differences, but prospect theory does not. It appears knowledge-based choices and gambling decisions capture different facets of decision-making.

Brewer JA; Potenza MN. The neurobiology and genetics of impulse control disorders: Relationships to drug addictions. (review). Biochemical Pharmacology 75(1): 63-75, 2008. (199 refs.)

Impulse control disorders (ICDs), including pathological gambling, trichotillomania, kleptomania and others, have been conceptualized to lie along an impulsive-compulsive spectrum. Recent data have suggested that these disorders may be considered addictions. Here, we review the genetic and neuropathological bases of the impulse control disorders and consider the disorders within these non-mutually exclusive frameworks.

Camchong J; Goodie AS; McDowell JE; Gilmore CS; Clementz BA. A cognitive neuroscience approach to studying the role of overconfidence in problem gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(2): 185-199, 2007. (47 refs.)

Research on the neural correlates of decision making in gambling tasks may be informative for understanding problem gambling. The present study explored confidence and overconfidence using magnetoencephalography (MEG) to measure brain activity during a judgment task. Nineteen undergraduates who self-identified as frequent gamblers (average age 19.7 years; 5 females, 14 males) participated in this study. Participants first completed the DIGS (Winters, Specker & Stinchfield, 2002), a measure of gambling pathology. They then engaged in a behavioral task of confidence assessment, wherein they answered two-alternative trivia questions and estimated the probability that each answer was correct. In a subsequent MEG task, they viewed the questions and a target answer, and indicated with a button press whether the target matched the correct answer. Confidence was directly related to activity in the right prefrontal cortex. Matching and mismatching targets were associated with activity in the medial occipital cortex and left supramarginal gyrus, respectively. An interaction of pathology and match/mismatch was observed in the right inferior occipital-temporal junction region, showing more activity following a mismatch in non-problem gamblers, but not in problem gamblers. Implications of the results for understanding of top-down modulation and attentional systems are discussed in relation to gambling behavior.

Cantinotti M; Ladouceur R. Harm reduction and electronic gambling machines: Does this pair make a happy couple or is divorce foreseen? Journal of Gambling Studies 24(1): 39-54, 2008. (96 refs.)

Recent empirical studies have evaluated if modifying electronic gambling machine (EGM) structural features could encourage safer gambling behaviors and decrease gambling-related problems. Several of these studies refer to Harm Reduction (HR), suggesting that the HR paradigm is useful to design, implement and test the efficacy of various prevention and treatment programs applied to EGM users. After reviewing the origins of HR and specifying its operational definition, this paper discusses the relevance of the HR framework for the study of measures related to EGM use and gambling in general. Examples are given to illustrate the arguments. The results show that HR has been over-inclusive in the field of gambling. A specific and operational definition and application of the HR framework is required for HR to be useful for the advancement of research in the gambling field.

Cantinotti M; Ladouceur R; Tavares H. Impaired control: A look at the laying brick of pathological gambling. (editorial). Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 29(3): 203-204, 2007. (5 refs.)

Chaput Y; Lebel MJ; Labonte E; Beaulieu L. Pathological gambling and the psychiatric emergency service. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 52(8): 535-538, 2007. (15 refs.)

Objective: Pathological gambling (PG) has been associated with several negative mental health outcomes. We attempted to assess the impact of PG at the level of the psychiatric emergency service (PES). Methods: In a first trial, clinical and demographic data were acquired from patients visiting the PES of a major university teaching hospital in downtown Montreal from July 1, 1996, to December 31, 2000. In a second trial, data were simultaneously acquired for a 2-year period in the above PES and in 3 others, beginning in September 2002. Results: In the first trial, from 2000 onward, the number of visits by PG patients to the PES increased by over 50%. In the second trial, the high level of PES use observed from 2000 onward in the first trial was similarly observed at all 4 PESs. The clinical and demographic characteristics of these patients were typical of help-seeking PG patients. They were, however, significantly less likely to be frequent users of the PES or to be hospitalized. Conclusion: Although still manageable, the clinical impact of PG on the PES increased significantly during the course of this study.

Clarke D. Older adults' gambling motivation and problem gambling: A comparative study. Journal of Gambling Studies 24(2): 175-192, 2008. (68 refs.)

Gambling participation rates among older adults (65+ years) have been increasing in recent years. Very few studies have compared older and younger gamblers on gambling motivation and problem gambling. This study compared 41 male and 63 female older gamblers (66-87 years; median 73) to 20 male and 85 female younger gamblers (17-34 years; median 20) in New Zealand on gambling involvement, gambling motives and number of gambling related problems in the previous 12 months. The questionnaire included the Gambling Motivation Scale (GMS) and the Revised South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS-R) of current problem gambling. There were between-group age differences but no significant gender or gender by age interaction effects. While older adults had significantly lower scores on all the measures, except they gambled more frequently, for both groups frequency of gambling, number of activities, largest amount spent in a single session and all motives were correlated with SOGS-R scores. Preferences for electronic gaming machines and bingo were related to SOGS-R scores for both age groups. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that after statistically controlling for age, gambling involvement and other motives, tension release uniquely predicted SOGS-R scores. For both age groups, increasing severity of problem gambling is more likely to be associated with releasing tension than with winning money or seeking sensation.

Cousins SO; Witcher CSG. Who plays bingo in later life? The sedentary lifestyles of 'little old ladies'. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(1): 95-112, 2007. (30 refs.)

Bingo is a popular past time with less than 20% of seniors, but the prevailing stereotype of bingo players describes elderly women with nothing better to do, smoking heavily while gambling away their limited income day after day. Little research has actually explored the lifestyles of seniors who frequent the bingo halls or identified social factors explaining who plays and why. Purpose The purpose of this study was to clarify the social context and lifestyle characteristics of seniors who regularly invest money on bingo. Design and Methods A 30-min telephone survey was conducted randomly with quotas for gender and urban/rural location with 400 Albertans aged 65+. Next, a strategic sample of 44 bingo players was added to the population sample to strengthen the dependent variable for regression analyses. Multiple regression analyses were used to define key characteristics of bingo players among 10 social or contextual factors and 5 lifestyle variables. Results Being female, more elderly, living in rental accommodation, receiving federal income supplements and reporting more health problems were significant predictors of more money typically spent on bingo (18% variance explained), and these findings lend support to the "little old lady'' stereotype. However, sedentary living, rather than smoking, was the only significant and predictive lifestyle pattern, suggesting that the lifestyle vices projected about bingo players are not entirely accurate. Conclusions Elderly women of marginal means do dominate the game of bingo in terms of money spent, but their gaming lifestyle apparently has less to do with habits of smoking, eating poorly, drinking alcohol, or having excessive leisure time, and more to do with sedentary recreation that is socially delimited by their gender, age, income and health.

Cronce JM; Corbin WR; Steinberg MA; Potenza MN. Self-perception of gambling problems among adolescents identified as at-risk or problem gamblers. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(4): 363-375, 2007. (40 refs.)

The relative influence of perceived familial addictive behaviors and personal gambling behaviors on adolescents' self- perceptions of gambling problems was examined. Students from five high schools in Connecticut (N = 3,886) were surveyed. Of those between the ages of 14 and 17 who scored two or more on the South Oaks Gambling Screen - Revised for Adolescents (n = 532; 72% male; 43% Caucasian), 14.3% reported having a current or past problem with gambling. Wagering larger amounts in a single day, gambling on a daily basis, and perceived presence of a family member with a gambling problem were associated with increased odds of self-perception of a gambling problem. Thus, adolescents who may be less likely to be identified for prevention efforts (due to lack of engagement in high stakes gambling or the real/perceived absence of a problematic gambler in the home) appear less likely to perceive a gambling problem. To advance prevention and treatment strategies, the apparent discrepancy between adolescents' self- perceptions and objective reports of problem gambling behaviors warrants further investigation.

Cunningham-Williams RM; Hong SL. A latent class analysis (LCA) of problem gambling among a sample of community-recruited gamblers. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 195(11): 939-947, 2007. (45 refs.)

Problem gambling rates are relatively low (2%-4%), yet these gamblers experience multisystemic negative consequences, high comorbidity, and low treatment utilization. We aimed to characterize variations in gambling patterns to inform prevention and intervention efforts. Using community advertising, we recruited a diverse sample of lifetime gamblers (n = 312) for telephone interviews for a psychometric study of the newly developed Computerized-Gambling Assessment Module. Latent Class Analysis enumerated and classified gambling subgroups by distinctive gambling patterns, based on 8 composite scales functioning as validators of latent class membership (i.e., diagnostic gambling symptoms, reasons for gambling, gambling "withdrawal-like" symptoms, problem gambling perceptions, gambling venues, financial sources for gambling, gambling treatment/belp-seeking, and religiosity/spirituality). Based on a distinguishing clustering pattern driven by 6 of 8 factors, we found a 6-class solution was the best-fitting solution. Gambling severity is most strongly characterized not only by symptomatology but also by the number of gambling treatment/helpseeking sources used.

da Silva Lobo DS; Vallada HP; Knight J; Martins SS; Tavares H; Gentil V et al. Dopamine genes and pathological gambling in discordant sib-pairs. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(4): 421-433, 2007. (79 refs.)

Pathological gambling (PG) is an impulse control disorder that has been considered as a behavioral addiction. Recent studies have suggested the involvement of the dopaminergic system in addictions and impulse control disorders and associations of dopamine receptor genes (DRD1, DRD2, and DRD4) and PG have been reported. In the present study, 140 sib-pairs discordant for the diagnosis of PG ( 70 males and 70 females on each group) were recruited through the Gambling Outpatient Unit at the Institute of Psychiatry, University of Sao Paulo and were assessed by trained psychiatrists. A family-based association design was chosen to prevent population stratification. All subjects were genotyped for dopamine receptor genes ( DRD1 - 800 T/C, DRD2 TaqIA RFLP, DRD3 Ser9Gly, DRD4 48bp exon III VNTR, DRD5 (CA) repeat) and the dopamine transporter gene (SCL6A3 40 bp VNTR). Our results suggest the association of PG with DRD1 - 800 T/C allele T (P = .03).

Dannon PN; Lowengrub K; Musin E; Gonopolsky Y; Kotler M. 12-month follow-up study of drug treatment in pathological gamblers: A primary outcome study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 27(6): 620-624, 2007. (28 refs.)

Background: Pathological gambling (PG) is a relatively common and highly disabling impulse control disorder. A range of psychotherapeutic agents including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, antiepileptic drugs, and opioid antagonists are shown to be effective in the short-term treatment of PG. The use of a wide range of pharmacological treatments for PG is consistent with the observation that PG shares features of obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders, impulse control disorders, and addictive disorders. The aim of the study is to assess the rate of relapse in treatment-responder pathological gamblers after discontinuation of the active treatment. Methods: Our study sample was composed of 43 male pathological gamblers who had been full responders to 1 of 4 drug treatment regimens (fluvoxamine, topiramate, bupropion SR, or naltrexone) from several previous acute open-label (12-week) comparison studies. Full response was defined as the absence of gambling for a 1-month duration together with improvement on the Clinical Global Improvement scale. The 43 full responders were then followed prospectively for an additional 9 months, which included a 3-month open-label continuation phase and a 6-month medication-free follow-up phase. Follow-up visits were performed on a monthly basis throughout the duration of study. At every follow-up visit, a comprehensive psychiatric diagnostic evaluation was performed on all patients, and patients were assessed for symptoms of gambling using a self-report instrument and collateral family reports. The Clinical Global Impression Improvement scale was also administered at every follow-up visit. Raters were blind to the previous drug treatment. Results: Most patients did not relapse during the 6-month medication-free follow-up phase. Three of 6 patients with fluvoxamine, 3 of 9 with topiramate, 7 of 18 with bupropion SR, and 4 of 10 with naltrexone relapsed. Relapse was strictly defined as gambling behavior at any time during the 6-month medication-free follow-up period. Most of the patients did not gamble during the follow-up period, and the patients that did gamble reported a decrease in gambling losses. Conclusions: This naturalistic long-term follow-up outcome study demonstrates that among pathological gamblers who respond to a 6-month trial of medication, most patients seem to maintain full-response during a 6-month medication-free follow-up phase. Further studies are needed to confirm our findings.

Davie M. Pathological gambling associated with cabergoline. (letter). Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 19(4): 473-474, 2007. (3 refs.)

de Castro V; Fong T; Rosenthal RJ; Tavares H. A comparison of craving and emotional states between pathological gamblers and alcoholics. Addictive Behaviors 32(8): 1555-1564, 2007. (38 refs.)

Fifty pathological gamblers and 42 alcohol dependent subjects were compared regarding craving, emotional states and social functioning. Subjects self-rated their cravings using the Weiss Craving Scale (WCS) and the Pennsylvania Craving Scale (PCS). Subjects answered a semi-structured interview, the Positive and Negative Affect Scale Extended Form (PANAS-X), and the Social Adjustment Scale (SAS-SR). Gamblers had higher scores on craving measures. Regression models showed that craving for gambling and alcohol have a significant correlation with emotional states. Craving for gambling was inversely correlated with positive affect and craving for alcohol was directly correlated with negative affect. Gambling craving was more dependent upon external factors and related to an unpleasant dearousing state, while alcohol craving was associated with an unpleasant arousing state. These findings point to the key role of emotional deregulation on gambling and alcohol cravings following early abstinence.

Derevensky JL; Pratt LM; Hardoon KK; Gupta R. Gambling problems and features of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents. Journal of Addiction Medicine 1(3): 165-172, 2007

Adolescence has been typically described as a developmental stage during which risky behaviors are common. Although considerable attention has been paid to high-profile risky behaviors, including alcohol and drug abuse, eating disorders, and smoking, little attention has focused on adolescent problem gambling. Given the DSM criteria of problem gambling being designated as an impulse control disorder, the relationship between adolescent problem gambling and impulsivity was assessed by using 2336 adolescents aged 12 to 19 years. Adolescents experiencing problem gambling- related behaviors were found to have a greater number of self-reported Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms. The results are discussed with respect to the relationship between adolescent impulsivity and gambling problems.

Desai RA; Desai MM; Potenza MN. Gambling, health, and age: Data from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 21(4): 431-440, 2007. (54 refs.)

The health effects of recreational gambling are presently unclear, particularly across age groups. Theories of healthy aging suggest that social activities, including gambling, may be beneficial to the health of older adults. Using cross-sectional data from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (N = 43,093), the authors examined associations between gambling (categorized as nongambling, recreational gambling, or problem/pathological gambling) and health and functioning measures stratified by age (40-64 years and >= 65). Problem/pathological gambling was uniformly associated with poorer health measures among both younger and older adults. Among younger respondents, poorer health measures were also found among recreational gamblers. However, among older respondents, recreational gambling was associated not only with some negative measures (e.g., obesity) but also with some positive measures (e.g., better physical and mental functioning). Longitudinal studies are needed to clarify the relationship between gambling and health in older adults in the context of healthy aging.

Desai RA; Potenza MN. Gender differences in the associations between past-year gambling problems and psychiatric disorders. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 43(3): 173-183, 2008. (35 refs.)

Background Psychiatric disorders frequently co-occur with pathological gambling. The extent to which co-occurence extends to subsyndromal levels of gambling or differs between women and men is incompletely understood. Aim To examine whether the association between psychiatric disorders and past-year gambling problems is stronger in women than men. Methods Data from the national epidemiological survey of alcoholism and related disorders (NESARC) (n = 43,093) were analyzed. Results Increasing severity of past-year gambling problems was associated with increasing odds of most past-year Axis I and lifetime Axis II disorders, regardless of gender. Associations between gambling problems and major depression, dysthymia, panic disorder, and nicotine dependence were statistically stronger in women than in men. Conclusions A severity-related association exists between past-year gambling problems and psychiatric disorders. The stronger associations in women suggest that gambling research, prevention and treatment efforts consider gender differences.

Driver-Dunckley ED; Noble BN; Hentz JG; Evidente VGH; Caviness JX; Parish J et al. Gambling and increased sexual desire with dopaminergic medications in restless legs syndrome. (review). Clinical Neuropharmacology 30(5): 249-255, 2007. (30 refs.)

Objectives: Do patients with restless legs syndrome (RLS) report gambling or other abnormal behaviors as previously reported in Parkinson disease. Methods: This survey study was sent to 261 idiopathic RLS patients, and it included the Gambling Symptoms Assessment Scale, Altman Self-Rating Mania Scale, and questions pertaining to sexual activity and novelty-seeking behaviors. Results: Ninety-nine patients responded to the survey, and 77 were actively taking 1 or more dopaminergic medications. Of the 70 respondents who answered the gambling questions, 5 (7%) noted a change in gambling, with 4 (6%; 95% confidence interval, 2%-14%) stating that increased urges and time spent gambling occurred specifically after the use of dopaminergic medications (2 on pramipexole, I on ropinirole, and I on levodopa and pramipexole). Increased sexual desire was reported by 4 (5%) of the 77 respondents, 3 (4%; 95% confidence interval, 1%-11%) reported that this occurred specifically after the use of dopaminergic medications (1 on pramipexole, I on ropinirole, and I on levodopa). One patient reported both an increase in gambling and sexual habits. Conclusions: This exploratory survey study revealed the development of gambling and/or increased sexuality in patients with RLS. These data raise the possibility that, as in Parkinson disease, RLS patients should be cautioned about potential behaviors that may occur with the use of dopaminergic medications. Further prospective studies are needed to assess the relationship between these medications and compulsive behaviors associated with the treatment of RLS.

Echeburua E; Fernandez-Montalvo J. Are there more personality disorders in treatment-seeking pathological gamblers than in other kind of patients? A comparative study between the IPDE and the MCMI. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology 8(1): 53-64, 2008. (30 refs.)

In this ex post facto study, the most frequent Personality Disorders (PDs) related to pathological gambling are described. A sample of 50 consecutively recruited treatment-seeking pathological gamblers was compared to 50 consecutively recruited psychiatric outpatients with non-addictive disorders and to 50 normative subjects from the general population with the same demographic features (age, sex, and socioeconomic level) to find out the prevalence of PDs. All participants were assessed with the International Personality Disorders Examination (IPDE), the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI-II), and with the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS). According to the results, 32% of pathological gamblers and 16% of the general clinical sample (versus 8% of the normative sample) showed at least one personality disorder. The most prevalent ones were the borderline personality disorder (16%), followed by the antisocial, narcissistic, and non specified personality disorders (8% each). The coincidence about the number and the kind of PDs diagnosed by both instruments was not strong. Finally, implications of this study for clinical practice and future research in this field are commented upon.

Ellenbogen S; Derevensky J; Gupta R. Gender differences among adolescents with gambling- related problems. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(2): 133-143, 2007. (30 refs.)

Data from five recent studies using self-reports were merged to explore gender differences in the characteristics of adolescent problem gambling, including comorbidity with other youth problems. The sample consisted of 2,750 male and 2,563 female participants. Male problem gamblers were more likely than females to report signs of psychological difficulties while females were more likely to note behavioural problems as a consequence of their gambling problems. Males and females with severe gambling problems had remarkably similar prevalence rates of depression, substance use and weekly gambling. In the non-problem gambling group, depression was more likely to afflict females whereas substance use and frequent gambling were more prevalent among males.

Ellenbogen S; Gupta R; Derevensky JL. A cross-cultural study of gambling behaviour among adolescents. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(1): 25-39, 2007. (38 refs.)

This study investigated whether the prevalence of weekly and problem gambling among youth varied according to cultural affiliation. A convenience sample of 1,265 Quebec high school students aged 12-18 was divided into three linguistic groupings: Anglophone (English),

Fischer S; Smith GT. Binge eating, problem drinking, and pathological gambling: Linking behavior to shared traits and social learning. Personality and Individual Differences 44(4): 789-800, 2008. (51 refs.)

Varied definitions of the construct impulsivity may account for inconsistencies in studies that examine its relationship to bulimic symptoms, pathological gambling, and alcohol abuse. We examined the influence of urgency, sensation seeking, lack of planning, and lack of persistence on these three addictive behavior patterns in 246 college students. In structural equation modeling analyses that included all four constructs, only urgency, defined as the tendency to act rashly when distressed, explained significant variance in symptom level for each of the three addictive behaviors. Sensation seeking related to frequency of gambling and drinking, but not to symptoms of abuse. Additionally, behavior specific expectancies moderated the effect of urgency on gambling for men and binge eating for women. Urgency may influence vulnerability to many types of addictive behaviors. However, whether or not individuals engage in drinking, gambling, or binge eating may be influenced by behavior specific expectancies.

Gallagher DA; O'Sullivan SS; Evans AH; Lees AJ; Schrag A. Pathological gambling in Parkinson's disease: Risk factors and differences from dopamine dysregulation. An analysis of published case series. Movement Disorders 22(12): 1757-1763, 2007. (50 refs.)

Pathological gambling (PG) has been reported as a complication of the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). We examined all published cases of PG for prevalence and risk factors of this complication, the relationship of PG and use of dopamine agonists (DA), and the relationship of PG to the dopamine dysregulation syndrome (DDS). The prevalence of PG in prospective studies of PD patients using DA has been reported between 2.3 and 8%, compared to approximately 1% in the general population. As in the general population, PD patients with this complication are often young, male and have psychiatric co-morbidity. The vast majority are on DA, often at maximum dose or above. Differences between oral DA failed to reach significance. PG associated with levodopa mono-therapy is uncommon, but in the majority of cases levodopa is co-prescribed, suggesting possible cross-sensitization of brain systems mediating reward. PG can occur with DDS but often occurs in isolation. In contrast to DDS, escalation and self regulation of anti-parkinsonian medication are not usually seen. PG in patients with PD using DA is higher than PG reported in the general population, but shares similar characteristics and risk factors. PG is predominantly associated with oral DA. It often occurs in isolation and may not be associated with DDS, which typically occurs on treatment with levodopa

Gambino B. A test of the false positive bias hypothesis. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(1): 55-62, 2007. (28 refs.)

An evaluation of the hypothesis that adolescent gamblers are biased toward the production of false positive responses proposed by Derevensky et al. was tested. The results of secondary analysis of available data supported the hypothesis for items on the South Oaks Gambling Screen and items from the DSM-IV screening instrument. The conclusions were presented as tentative in view of the modest sizes of the observed effects. A number of limitations to the analysis are also described.

Gonzales AA; Lyson TA; Mauer KW. What does a casino mean to a tribe? Assessing the impact of casino development on Indian reservations in Arizona and New Mexico. Social Science Journal 44(3): 405-419, 2007. (14 refs.)

Using data from the 1990 and 2000 U.S. Census of Population and Housing, we examine five social and economic characteristics of individuals and households living on reservations in Arizona and New Mexico that have a casino to those that do not. This research differs in two ways from previous studies that have attempted to assess the social and economic impacts of Indian gaming. First, the unit of observation and analysis is the reservation, not a tribe. A focus on reservations allows us to assess the role casinos play in "place-based" economic development. Second, since reservations and tribes are not coterminous, we seek to differentiate the effects of casinos on the Indian population living on reservations from the effects for all reservation residents (Indians and others). The results show that casino gambling is associated with improvements in social and economic welfare for both the Indian and non-Indian populations alike. However, Indian gaming did not contribute to positive outcomes in all cases. Indeed, the effects of gaming are filtered through a myriad of structural and cultural contexts that shape who wins and who loses when a casino opens on a reservation. The implications of Indian gaming for economic development are discussed.

Goodman A. Neurobiology of addiction - An integrative review. (review). Biochemical Pharmacology 75(1): 266-322, 2008. (1118 refs.)

Evidence that psychoactive substance use disorders, bulimia nervosa, pathological gambling, and sexual addiction share an underlying biopsychological process is summarized. Definitions are offered for addiction and addictive process, the latter being the proposed designation for the underlying biopsychological process that addictive disorders are hypothesized to share. The addictive process is introduced as an interaction of impairments in three functional systems: motivation-reward, affect regulation, and behavioral inhibition. An integrative review of the literature that addresses the neurobiology of addiction is then presented, organized according to the three functional systems that constitute the addictive process. The review is directed toward identifying candidate neurochemical substrates for the impairments in motivation-reward, affect regulation, and behavioral inhibition that could contribute to an addictive process.

Goudriaan AE; Oosterlaan J; De Beurs E; Van Den Brink W. The role of self-reported impulsivity and reward sensitivity versus neurocognitive measures of disinhibition and decision-making in the prediction of relapse in pathological gamblers. Psychological Medicine 38(1): 41-50, 2008. (75 refs.)

Background. Disinhibition and decision-making skills play an important role in theories on the cause and outcome of addictive behaviors such as substance use disorders and pathological gambling. In recent studies, both disinhibition and disadvantageous decision-making strategies, as measured by neurocognitive tests, have been found to influence the course of substance use disorders. Research on factors affecting relapse in pathological gambling is scarce. Method. This study investigated the effect of both self-reported impulsivity and reward sensitivity, and neurocognitively assessed disinhibition and decision-making under conflicting contingencies, on relapse in a group of 46 pathological gamblers. Results. Logistic regression analysis indicated that longer duration of the disorder and neurocognitive indicators of disinhibition (Stop Signal Reaction Time) and decision-making (Card Playing Task) were significant predictors of relapse (explaining 53% of the variance in relapse), whereas self-reported impulsivity and reward sensitivity did not significantly predict relapse. Overall classification accuracy was 76%, with a positive classification accuracy of 76% and a negative classification accuracy of 75%. Conclusions. Duration of the disorder and neurocognitive measures of disinhibition and decision-making are powerful predictors of relapse in pathological gambling. The results suggest that endophenotypical neurocognitive characteristics are more promising in the prediction of relapse in pathological gambling than phenotypical personality characteristics. Neurocognitive predictors may be useful to guide treatment planning of follow-up contacts and booster sessions.

Grant JE; Potenza MN. Commentary: Illegal behavior and pathological gambling. (editorial). Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 35(3): 302-305, 2007. (12 refs.)

A complex relationship exists between illegal behavior and pathological gambling, and this relationship has significant implications in both the legal and clinical domains. Despite the importance of this relationship, relatively little research has examined illegal behavior in pathological gambling, particularly within a current gambling climate that has seen dramatic expansion over recent years. Although the article by Ledgerwood and colleagues provides additional insight into the relationship between pathological gambling and illegal behavior, many questions remain unanswered and warrant further investigation.

Han DH; Lee YS; Yang KC; Kim EY; Lyoo K; Renshaw PF. Dopamine genes and reward dependence in adolescents with excessive internet video game play. Journal of Addiction Medicine 1(3): 133-138, 2007

Excessive internet video game play (EIGP) has emerged as a leading cause of behavioral and developmental problems in adolescents. Recent research has implicated the role of striatal dopaminergic system in the behavioral maladaptations associated with EIGP. This study investigates the reward-dependence characteristics in EIGP adolescents as it potentially relates to genetic polymorphisms of the dopaminergic system and temperament. Seventy-nine male EIGP adolescents and 75 age- and gender-matched healthy comparison adolescents were recruited. Associations were tested with respect to the reward-dependence (RD) scale in Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory and the frequencies of 3 dopamine polymorphisms: Taq1A1 allele of the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2 Taq1A1) and Val158Met in the Catecholamine-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) genes. The Taq1A1 and low activity (COMTL) alleles were significantly more prevalent in the EIGP group relative to the comparison group. The present EIGP group had significantly higher RD scores than controls. Within the EIGP group, the presence of the Taq1A1 allele correlated with higher RD scores. Our findings suggest that EIGP subjects have higher reward dependency and an increased prevalence of the DRD2 Taq1A1 and COMTL alleles. In particular, the DRD2 Taq1A1 allele seems to be associated with reward dependence in EIGP adolescents.

Haw J. The relationship between reinforcement and gaming machine choice. Journal of Gambling Studies 24(1): 55-61, 2008. (10 refs.)

The present study assessed whether prior reinforcement experiences were related to gaming machine choice and the decision to change gaming machines during a session of gambling. Seventy undergraduate students (48 women, 22 men; mean age = 22.05 years) were presented with two visually identical simulated gaming machines in a practice phase. These simulated machines differed only in the rate of reinforcement. After the practice phase, participants were asked to choose a machine to play in the test phase and were allowed to change machines at will. Two measures of reinforcement were employed; frequency of wins and payback rate. Results indicated that neither measure of reinforcement was related to machine choice, but both were predictors of when participants changed machines. A post-hoc analysis of the 33 participants who changed machines during the test phase found a significant relationship between machine choice and prior reinforcement. For these participants, payback rate was significantly related to machine choice, unlike frequency of wins.

Hodge DR; Andereck K; Montoya H. The protective influence of spiritual-religious lifestyle profiles on tobacco use, alcohol use, and gambling. Social Work Research 31(4): 211-219, 2007. (53 refs.)

The costs associated with the use of addictive substances and practices underscore the need for research on protective factors that inhibit use. In this study, the protective influences of various spiritual-religious lifestyle profiles on tobacco smoking, alcohol use, and gambling frequency and expenditures are examined. Among the predominantly Hispanic sample used in the study (N = 249), cluster analysis produced three lifestyle profiles: neither spiritual nor religious, spiritual and religious, and spiritual but not religious. Of these three, the spiritual and religious lifestyle profile exhibited the strongest protective influence across all four dependent measures. Although the exploratory nature of the study precludes definitive recommendations, a number of tentative implications from the findings are drawn.

Hodgins DC; Currie SR; El-Guebaly N; Diskin KM. Does providing extended relapse prevention bibliotherapy to problem gamblers improve outcome? Journal of Gambling Studies 23(1): 41-54, 2007. (21 refs.)

Relapse rates among pathological gamblers are high with as many as 75% of gamblers returning to gambling shortly after a serious attempt to quit. The present study focused on providing a low cost, easy to access relapse prevention program to such individuals. Based on information collected in our ongoing study of the process of relapse, a series of relapse prevention booklets were developed and evaluated. Individuals who had recently quit gambling (N = 169) were recruited (through media announcements) and randomly assigned to a single mailing condition in which they received one booklet summarizing all of the relapse prevention information or a repeated mailing condition in which they received the summary booklet plus 7 additional booklets mailed to them at regular intervals over the course of a year period. Gambling involvement over the course of the 12-month follow-up period, confirmed by family or friends, was compared between the two groups. Results indicated that participants receiving the repeated mailings were more likely to meet their goal, but they did not differ from participants receiving the single mailing in frequency of gambling or extent of gambling losses. The results of this project suggest that providing extended relapse prevention bibliotherapy to problem gamblers does not improve outcome. However, providing the overview booklet may be a low cost, easy to access alternative for individuals who have quit gambling.

Hodgins DC; Toneatto T; Makarchuk K; Skinner W; Vincent S. Minimal treatment approaches for concerned significant others of problem. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(2): 215-230, 2007. (19 refs.)

The goal of this study was to examine the efficacy of minimal treatment interventions for concerned significant others (CSOs) of problem gamblers. One hundred and eighty-six participants (82% females, 56% spouses) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: the first minimal intervention group received a selfhelp workbook [based on behavioral principles, modified from the Community Reinforcement and Family Therapy (CRAFT) model] and the second minimal intervention group received the workbook plus telephone support. The control condition received a treatment resource information package. Overall, all participants reported significant improvement in personal and relationship functioning and gambling behavior and consequences at the 3- and 6-month follow-up. The data demonstrated differences in favor of the interventions in three areas: days gambling, satisfaction with the program, and number who had their needs met. There was no difference in the number who had entered treatment. It may be that CSOs require more guidance and follow-up support to achieve these goals using the CRAFT procedures and strategies.

Huang JH; Boyer R. Epidemiology of youth gambling problems in canada: A national prevalence study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 52(10): 657-665, 2007. (34 refs.)

Objectives: To describe the epidemiology of gambling problems among youth aged 15 to 24 years in Canada and to examine whether these gambling prevalence patterns differ by sex and (or) by geographic region. Method: We used data from The Canadian Community Health Survey: Mental Health and Well-Being. Gambling problems were determined according to the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. All prevalence estimates used appropriate sampling weights and bootstrap variance estimation procedures developed by Statistics Canada. Multivariate logistic regression modelling was also employed to supplement the above prevalence comparisons by age, sex, and region. Results: Among Canadian youth aged 15 to 24 years (n = 5666), 61.35% gambled in the past 12 months and the national prevalence of moderate-risk or problem gambling was 2.22% (3.30% in male respondents and 1.10% in female respondents). Male respondents had significantly higher prevalence of gambling problems than female respondents. Regional prevalence estimates of youth moderate-risk or problem gambling were 1.37% in British Columbia, 2.17% in the Prairie provinces, 2.75% in Ontario, 2.12% in Quebec, and 1.71% in the Atlantic provinces. Conclusions: Youth, particularly young men, are at greater risk for gambling problems than adults. More prevention and research efforts are also needed to address the observed sex differences and interregional variability in the prevalence of gambling problems among youth. The national prevalence estimates from this study provide important baseline data against which future cohorts of Canadians can be monitored and measured.

Huggins M. Betting, sport and the British, 1918-1939. (review). Journal of Social History 41(2): 283-+, 2007. (98 refs.)

The paper argues that over the interwar period attitudes to betting were in the process of slow but steady change. Broader changes in attitudes to leisure, including increasing secularization, led to an increasingly widespread acceptance of moderate betting across all classes. Between 1920 and 1938 estimated legal gambling expenditure as a proportion of total British consumer spending rose from 1.3 per cent to 5 per cent of a much higher total consumer expenditure. The money spent on other illegal but widely popular betting on sports such as horse races further swelled such totals. Yet betting divided Britain, and a powerful stigma was attached to it in some circles. There were complex and (sometimes) contradictory social and cultural meanings attached to sports betting, and these engendered debates, disputes and divisions across the classes, churches, and political parties. Despite the range of arguments it employed, the power base of the anti-gambling groups was in decline. New betting forms were emerging, with increased impact over time. Greyhound racing and football pools betting were able to overcome their initial opposition and became legalized and widely accepted. Various locally and nationally organized sweepstakes on major horse races, whilst remaining illegal, became tacitly accepted. Even the attempts by the British government to limit the popularity of the Irish Hospitals' Trust Sweepstakes had only limited success. The only major new betting forms to fail were the British urban tote clubs, popular largely only amongst the working class, which had few powerful defenders.

Iancu L; Lowengrub K; Dembinsky Y; Kotler M; Dannon PN. Pathological gambling - An update on neuropathophysiology and pharmacotherapy. (review). CNS Drugs 22(2): 123-138, 2008. (103 refs.)

Neurobiological research has shown the potential involvement of serotonergic, dopaminergic and opioid dysfunction in the pathophysiology of pathological gambling. In this review, we present current theories of the neuropathology of pathological gambling, paying particular attention to the role of the neural circuitry underlying motivation, reward, decision-making and impulsivity. This review also presents a literature review of current pharmacological treatment strategies for pathological gambling, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), opioid receptor antagonists, anti-addiction drugs and mood stabilizers, and also discusses the role of nonpharmacological interventions. A hypothetical model of the clinical subtypes of pathological gambling is presented, e.g. the impulsive subtype, the obsessive-compulsive subtype and the addictive subtype. This model attempts to integrate current knowledge in the field of pathological gambling regarding neuropathology, psychiatric co-morbidity, family history, genetics, course of illness, gender and response to pharmacological treatment. Finally, it is proposed that the existence of possible clinical subtypes of pathological gambling may provide a potential framework for matching the various subtypes with specific pharmacotherapies.

Jacobsen LH; Knudsen AK; Krogh E; Pallesen S; Molde H. An overview of cognitive mechanisms in pathological gambling. Nordic Psychology 59(4): 347-361, 2007. (66 refs.)

This paper presents an overview of the literature published on "cognitive biases" and gambling from 1960 till the present day. Typical cognitive biases are an individual's irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions and erroneous perceptions about his or her ability to influence, control or predict the outcome of a chance event; these appear to be important for the maintenance of gambling related behaviour. Overall, the research suggests that cognitive factors are important in developing gambling addiction, but may be less important when gambling becomes habitual or regulated by automatic processes. Regardless of whether the behaviour is explained by reinforcement, needs or cognitive theories, it is still unclear why some individuals gamble more than others.

Janiri L; Martinotti G; Dario T; Schifano F; Bria P. The gamblers' Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) personality profile. Substance Use & Misuse 42(6): 975-984, 2007. (35 refs.)

In a cross-comparison study, the Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) personality profile was administered to 28 probable pathological gamblers (PPGs), 32 nonpathological gamblers (non-PGs), and 65 controls. As a screening device, the validated Italian version of the South Oak Gambling Screen was administered to all subjects. Novelty Seeking (NS) values were higher in PPGs in comparison with both non-PGs (p < .05) and controls (p < .001). PPGs showed lower Self-Directedness (SD) and Cooperativeness (CO) values with respect to both non-PGs (p < .05 and p = .001, respectively) and controls (p <. 001 and p = .001, respectively). The subsamples of PPGs reporting either a current substance misuse condition or a parental involvement in gambling/substance misuse showed higher NS (p = .01) and lower CO (p = .005) values than the remaining PPGs. A duration of problem gambling in excess of 20 years was associated with lower (p = .001) CO values. Specific temperamental (NS) and character (SD; CO) dimensions differentiated PPGs from both non-PGs and controls; assessment of personality profile with the TCI may identify at-risk social gamblers.

Jenkins J. Gambling partners? The risky outcomes of workplace partnerships. Work, Employment and Society 21(4): 635-652, 2007. (35 refs.)

This article analyses the motivations and dynamics of union-management partnership at two manufacturing plants located in the industrial region of South Wales in the UK. Each plant was a subsidiary of an international parent corporation: one in the aluminium sector and one in autocomponents manufacture. For meaningful partnership to be achieved, it is assumed that both union and management partners engage in reciprocal elements of risk in the hope - or gamble - that mutually beneficial outcomes will be forthcoming. But this article will argue that the causal association between partnership and substantive outcomes is contested. It suggests that analysis of partnership should focus on the context in which it is found, the motivations of key actors, and the nature of reciprocal risk for labour and management, in order to gain optimum insight into modern industrial relations and illuminate the political implications for the collective representation of labour's interests in contemporary capitalist society.

Jimenez-Murcia S; Alvarez-Moya EM; Granero R; Aymami MN; Gomez-Pena M; Jaurrieta N et al. Cognitive-behavioral group treatment for pathological gambling: analysis of effectiveness and predictors of therapy outcome. Psychotherapy Research 17(5): 544-552, 2007. (43 refs.)

The authors sought to examine short- and mid-term effectiveness of a group cognitive - behavioral therapy (CBT) in pathological gambling (PG) and to analyze predictors of therapy outcome. Two hundred ninety PG patients participated in the current study, all diagnosed on the basis of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition) criteria, and were given manualized outpatient group CBT (16 weekly sessions). Specific assessment before and after the therapy and at 1, 3, and 6 months follow-up was conducted. Logistic regression and survival analyses were applied. Outpatient group CBT was found to be effective, with abstinence rates of 76.1% by the end of therapy and 81.5% at 6 months follow-up. The dropout rate during treatment decreased significantly after the fifth treatment session. Psychopathological distress (p = .040) and obsessive - compulsive symptoms were identified as factors predicting relapse and dropout, respectively. These findings suggest that group CBT is effective for treating pathological gamblers. Several psychopathological and personality traits were identified as outcome predictors.

Kalechstein AD; Fong T; Rosenthal RJ; Davis A; Vanyo H; Newton TE. Pathological gamblers demonstrate frontal lobe impairment consistent with that of methamphetamine-dependent individuals. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 19(3): 298-303, 2007. (32 refs.)

Using tests that are frequently administered by neuropsychologists, the authors investigated whether pathological gambling is associated with frontal lobe abnormalities. The sample comprised 10 pathological gamblers, 25 methamphetamine-dependent subjects, and 19 matched comparison subjects. The pathological gamblers and methamphetamine-dependent subjects performed significantly less well than comparison subjects, and the gamblers' test scores were comparable to those of the methamphetamine-dependent participants. The overall magnitude of the effect size was large. These findings demonstrate that the severity of frontal lobe dysfunction in pathological gambling is similar to that observed in methamphetamine-dependent individuals on frequently used clinical measures.

Kim EJ; Namkoong K; Ku; Kim SJ. The relationship between online game addiction and aggression, self-control and narcissistic personality traits. European Psychiatry 23(3): 212-218, 2008. (36 refs.)

Objectives. - This study aimed to explore the relationship between online game addiction and aggression, self-control, and narcissistic personality traits, which are known as the psychological characteristics linked to "at-risk" populations for online game addiction. Method. - A total of 1471 online game users (males 82.7%, females 17.3%, mean age 21.30 +/- 4.96) participated in this study and were asked to complete several self-report measures using an online response method. Questionnaires included demographic information and game use-related characteristics of the samples, the online game addiction scale (modified from Young's Internet addiction scale), the Buss-Perry aggression questionnaire, a self-control scale, and the narcissistic personality disorder scale. Results. - Our results indicated that aggression and narcissistic personality traits are positively correlated with online game addiction, whereas self-control is negatively correlated with online game addiction (p < 0.001). In addition, a multiple regression analysis revealed that the extent of online game addiction could be predicted based on the person's narcissistic personality traits, aggression, self-control, interpersonal relationship, and occupation. However, only 20% of the variance in behavioral consequences was explained with the model. Conclusion. - An interesting profile has emerged from the results of this study, suggesting that certain psychological characteristics such as aggression, self-control, and narcissistic personality traits may predispose some individuals to become addicted to online games. This result will deepen our understanding of the "at-risk" population for online game addiction and provide basic information that can contribute to developing a prevention program for people who are addicted to online games.

Korman LM; Collins J; Dutton D; Dhayananthan B; Littman-Sharp N; Skinner W. Problem gambling and intimate partner violence. Journal of Gambling Studies 24(1): 13-23, 2008. (20 refs.)

This study examined the prevalence and severity of intimate partner violence (IPV) among 248 problem gamblers (43 women, 205 men) recruited from newspaper advertisements. The main outcome measures used were the Canadian Problem Gambling Index, the Conflicts Tactics Scale-2, the State Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2, the drug and alcohol section of the Addiction Severity Index and the substance use section of the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV. In this sample, 62.9% of participants reported perpetrating and/or being the victims of IPV in the past year, with 25.4% reporting perpetrating severe IPV. The majority of the sample (64.5%) also had clinically significant anger problems, which was associated with an increased risk of being both the perpetrator and victim of IPV. The presence of a lifetime substance use disorder among participants who had clinically significant anger problems further increased the likelihood of both IPV perpetration and victimization. These findings underscore the importance of routinely screening gambling clients for anger and IPV, and the need to develop public policy, prevention and treatment programs to address IPV among problem gamblers. Future research to examine IPV among problem gamblers is recommended.

Kushner MG; Abrams K; Donahue C; Thuras P; Frost R; Kim SW. Urge to gamble in problem gamblers exposed to a casino environment. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(2): 121-132, 2007. (23 refs.)

Cue-reactivity has received increased attention in addiction research, though not for gambling in particular. We examined cue reactivity in 18 problem gamblers by accompanying them to a gaming casino and measuring their subjective urge to gamble over a 1-h period. Half of the sample was additionally exposed to a gambling-specific negative mood induction (NMI) manipulation via guided imagery. Overall, about two-thirds of the sample reported moderate to high-gambling urges during the casino exposure. Additionally, the NMI reduced cue-reactivity. Finally, gambling urges in both groups decreased over the course of the exposure sessions. These findings suggest that a majority of problem gamblers experience the urge to gamble when exposed to gambling cues and that the intensity of these urges decrease with time, especially in the presence of a gambling-relevant NMI. Cue exposure should be studied further as a potential tool in the treatment of problem gambling.

Kushner M; Thurus P; Sletten S; Frye B; Abrams K; Adson D et al. Urge to gamble in a simulated gambling environment. Journal of Gambling Studies 24(2): 219-227, 2008. (24 refs.)

Cue reactivity, while increasingly recognized as a central feature of drug and alcohol addiction, is not well studied in gambling. We evaluated the urge to gamble in a simulated casino environment among frequent gamblers who alternated between cycles in which they observed others playing ten hands of Blackjack (first, third and fifth cycle) and cycles in which they played ten hands of Blackjack themselves (second and fourth cycle). The played cycles served as a manipulation for the observed cycles in terms of "priming" (having previously gambled in the environment vs. not) and "anticipation" (expecting more opportunities to gamble in the environment vs. not) and, thus, allowed these conditions: observed cycle 1 = anticipation (+) and prime (-); observed cycle 2 = anticipation (+) and prime (+); and observed cycle 3 = anticipation (-) and prime (+). Subjects' urge to gamble was greater in the gambling environment than in a neutral setting and both positive anticipation and positive priming increased cue reactivity within the gambling environment. The frequency of gambling outside of the study did not affect cue reactivity. However, a preference for Blackjack (vs. other types of gambling) and observing winning (vs. losing) hands were both associated with stronger cue reactivity in the study. These findings contribute to our understanding of pathological gambling.

LaBrie RA; LaPlante DA; Nelson SE; Schumann A; Shaffer HJ. Assessing the playing field: A prospective longitudinal study of internet sports gambling behavior. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(3): 347-362, 2007. (36 refs.)

Internet gambling is growing rapidly, as is concern about its possible effect on the public's health. This paper reports the results of the first prospective longitudinal study of actual Internet sports gambling behavior during eight study months. Data include recorded fixed-odds bets on the outcome of sporting contests and live-action bets on the outcome of events within contests for 40,499 Internet sports gambling service subscribers who enrolled during February 2005. We tracked the following primary gambling behaviors: daily totals of the number of bets made, money bet, and money won. We transformed these variables into measures of gambling involvement. We analyzed behavior for both fixed-odds and live-action bets. The median betting behavior of the 39,719 fixed-odds bettors was to place 2.5 bets of epsilon 4 (approximately $ 5.3 US) every fourth day during the median 4 months from first to last bet. This typical pattern incurred a loss of 29% of the amount wagered. The median betting behavior of the 24,794 live-action bettors was to place 2.8 wagers of epsilon 4 every fourth day during the median duration of 6 weeks at a loss of 18% of the amount wagered. We also examined the behavior of empirically determined groups of heavily involved bettors whose activity exceeded that of 99% of the sample.

LaBrie RA; Nelson SE; LaPlante DA; Peller AJ; Caro G; Shaffer HJ. Missouri casino self-excluders: Distributions across time and space. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(2): 231-243, 2007. (29 refs.)

According to public health research, exposure to casinos is a risk factor for disordered gambling. Consequently, casino self-exclusion programs, which provide gamblers with the opportunity to voluntarily seek limits on their access to gambling venues, can serve as a barometer of the concentration of disordered gambling in an area. This study reports on the distribution, both temporally and geographically, of 6,599 people who applied to exclude themselves from Missouri casinos between November, 1996 and February, 2004. Analyses used Microsoft MapPoint to plot the location of casinos and self-excluders (SEs) across Missouri and its constituent counties. These regional exposure analyses showed that the Western region around Kansas City is an epicenter of disordered gambling as, to a lesser extent, is the Eastern region around St. Louis. The annual number of SE enrollments increased during the first few years of the Missouri self-exclusion program and then leveled off during the later years. These findings have important implications for public health and the development of public health interventions for disordered gamblers.

Labudda K; Wolf OT; Markowitsch HJ; Brand M. Decision-making and neuroendocrine responses in pathological gamblers. Psychiatry Research 153(3): 233-243, 2007. (68 refs.)

Recent neuropsychological research indicates that patients with pathological gambling (PG) exhibit deficits in laboratory tasks of decision-making which are suggested to be associated with neurochemical alterations within the prefrontal cortex. Some studies also revealed that hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity in gamblers is altered. To date, very little is known about the relationship between decision-making and neuroendocrine parameters. Therefore, we examined patients with PG (n = 22) and healthy comparison subjects (n = 19) with a laboratory task of decision-making (Game of Dice Task) and sampled salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase (sAA) concentrations before and in the course of task performance. Results showed that the PG patients' neuroendocrine responses were comparable to those of the healthy subjects, even though the patients had severe decision-making deficits. Within both groups, there were no changes in cortisol and sAA responses. However, correlations and a subgroup analysis for sAA revealed that only those patients who showed less disadvantageous decision-making patterns had an increase of sAA during the task. Accordingly, the increase of sAA - as an indirect marker of sympathetic nervous system activity - in those patients with less severe decision-making deficits could reflect the use of somatic markers biasing the decision-making process.

Ladouceur R; Sylvain C; Gosselin P. Self-exclusion program: A longitudinal evaluation study. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(1): 85-94, 2007. (12 refs.)

Few self-exclusion programs have been evaluated and their long-term impact remains unknown. This study has two main goals: (1) to assess changes in gambling behaviour and gambling problems for self-excluded patrons, and (2) to follow self- excluded gamblers for a two-year period (during and after the self-exclusion period). Individuals who excluded themselves (N = 161 at the initial stage) participated in telephone interviews after signing the self- exclusion agreement and were followed at 6, 12, 18 and 24- months. Results show that according to the DSM-IV, 73.1% of the participants were pathological gamblers. The self- exclusion program has many positive effects. During the follow- ups, the urge to gamble was significantly reduced while the perception of control increased significantly for all participants. The intensity of negative consequences for gambling was significantly reduced for daily activities, social life, work, and mood. The DSM score was significantly reduced over time. This reduction also took place between the baseline and the 6-month follow-up. The clinical implications of the results are discussed in relation to the effectiveness of the program. Suggestions are provided in order to increase compliance of self-excluded patrons.

Laffey D. The ultimate bluff: A case study of partygaming.com. Journal of Information Technology 22(4): 479-488, 2007. (24 refs.)

June 2005 was to bring online gambling out of the shadows and into the spotlight. PartyGaming, a start-up formed in 1997, launched a flotation (Initial Public Offering) on the London Stock Exchange that valued the firm at 4.64 pound billion giving it a larger market capitalisation than British Airways. PartyGaming had become the dominant player in the booming online poker market with its PartyPoker brand having over 50% market share. However, this float - as with Internet gambling in general - was not without controversy. While PartyGaming had an online gambling license from the tax haven of Gibraltar, nearly 90% of its revenue came from the United States, where the authorities viewed Internet gambling as illegal and threatened legal action. The complex operations of this truly global firm with bases in London, India, Gibraltar and Canada, the background of its founder Ruth Parasol in Internet pornography and the handling of its flotation also raised concerns from an ethical perspective, with some commentators questioning whether the float should have been allowed at all. These concerns were then confirmed as US legislation to curb online gambling was passed in September 2006, leading to PartyGaming's exit from the US market and an immediate fall of 58% in the share price. This case study analyses the entrepreneurs behind PartyGaming, its growth, the challenges it has faced, the ethical issues it poses and its future prospects. The case draws on theory from e-commerce, strategy and ethics.

Lakey CE; Campbell WK; Brown KW; Goodie AS. Dispositional mindfulness as a predictor of the severity of gambling outcomes. Personality and Individual Differences 43(7): 1698-1710, 2007. (29 refs.)

Two studies were conducted to test and explain the relation of mindfulness to the severity of gambling outcomes among frequent gamblers. In both studies, dispositional mindfulness related to less severe gambling outcomes as measured by a DSM-IV-based screen for pathological gambling, even after controlling for gambling frequency and dispositional self-control. Study 2 extended this finding in showing that the association between mindfulness and lower pathological gambling was partially mediated by better performance on two risk-taking tasks that capture overconfidence, risky bet acceptance, and myopic focus on reward. These studies suggest a role for mindfulness in lessening the severity of gambling problems and making adaptive decisions, especially in risk-relevant contexts.

Lakey CE; Goodie AS; Lance CE; Stinchfield R; Winters KC. Examining DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling: Psychometric properties and evidence from cognitive biases. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(4): 479-498, 2007. (51 refs.)

We examined the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling as assessed with the DSM-IV-based Diagnostic Interview for Gambling Severity (DIGS; Winters, Specker, & Stinchfield, 2002). We first analyzed the psychometric properties of the DIGS, and then assessed the extent to which performance on two judgment and decision-making tasks, the Georgia Gambling Task (Goodie, 2003) and the Iowa Gambling Task (Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994), related to higher reports of gambling pathology. In a sample of frequent gamblers, we found strong psychometric support for the DSM-IV conception of pathological gambling as measured by the DIGS, predictive relationships between DIGS scores and all cognitive performance measures, and significant differences in performance measures between individuals with and without pathological gambling. Analyses using suggested revisions to the pathological gambling threshold (Stinchfield, 2003) revealed that individuals meeting four of the DSM-IV criteria aligned significantly more with pathological gamblers than with non-pathological gamblers, supporting the suggested change in the cutoff score from five to four symptoms. Discussion focuses on the validity of the DSM-IV criteria as assessed by the DIGS and the role of cognitive biases in pathological gambling.

Lakey CE; Goodie AS; Campbell WK. Frequent card playing and pathological gambling: The utility of the Georgia gambling task and Iowa gambling task for predicting pathology. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(3): 285-297, 2007. (25 refs.)

The current investigation examined performance on two laboratory-based gambling tasks, the Georgia Gambling Task (GGT; Goodie, 2003. The effects of control on betting: Paradoxical betting on items of high confidence with low value. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 598-610) and the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994. Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition, 50, 7-15), as well as self-reported markers of gambling pathology using the Diagnostic Interview for Gambling Severity (DIGS; Winters, Specker, & Stinchfield, 2002. The downside: Problem and pathological gambling (pp. 143-148). Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Reno) among a sample of undergraduate students who are frequent card players. Two hundred twenty-one participants (55 female and 166 male; mean age 19.21 years) who self-classified as playing cards at least once per month completed these measures. Performance on GGT and IGT systematically related to gambling-related pathology in several ways. Overconfidence and bet acceptance on the GGT, and myopic focus on reward on the IGT, predicted gambling related pathology. GGT and IGT performance correlated with each other, but both contributed independently to predicting gambling pathology. Card playing frequency predicted gambling pathology but not GGT or IGT performance. Discussion focuses on the role of biases of judgment and risky decision making pathological gambling.

Lal A; Siahpush M. The effect of smoke-free policies on electronic gaming machine expenditure in Victoria, Australia. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 62(1): 11-15, 2008. (54 refs.)

Objective: To examine the impact of smoke-free policies in Victorian gambling venues on electronic gaming machine (EGM) expenditure. Method: Monthly EGM expenditure from July 1998 to December 2005, provided by the Victorian Commission for Gambling Regulation and the Office of the Liquor and Gambling Commissioner in South Australia, was analysed. The outcome measure was the ratio of monthly expenditure for Victoria to monthly expenditure in South Australia. Intervention analysis and autoregressive integrated moving average modelling were used to assess the impact of the smoke-free policy on expenditure. Results: The smoke-free policy resulted in an abrupt, long-term decrease in the level of EGM expenditure. The mean level of monthly expenditure decreased by approximately 14%. Conclusion: The smoke-free policy not only protects hospitality workers and patrons from exposure to secondhand smoke but has also had an impact on slowing gambling losses.

Lam D. An exploratory study of gambling motivations and their impact on the purchase frequencies of various gambling products. Psychology & Marketing 24(9): 815-827, 2007. (41 refs.)

The global gambling industry is huge and gambling has become a leading leisure activity in many countries. Although research on gambling is extensive, many gaps remain. The objective of this exploratory study was to examine how motivations for regular gambling varied by the forms of game played. Using data collected by the U.S. National Gambling Impact Study Commission, the study found that regular gamblers were motivated to gamble to win and to fulfill their sense of excitement/challenge for some gambling products like lottery, racetrack betting, and casinos. For others, such as bingo and card room games, they were motivated to gamble more for social reasons. The findings have important implications to marketers and public policy makers.

LaPlante DA; Nelson SE; LaBrie RA; Shaffer HJ. Stability and progression of disordered gambling: Lessons from longitudinal studies. (review). Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 53(1): 52-60, 2008. (61 refs.)

Objective: Few studies have explicitly examined the stability (that is, the tendency for individuals to stay at one diagnostic level as opposed to moving to another improved or worsened level) or progression of disordered gambling; however, conventional wisdom holds that disordered gambling is intractable and escalating. The objective of this study was to examine these assumptions. Method: We reviewed 5 recent prospective studies of gambling behaviour among nontreatment samples for evidence related to the stability and progression of disordered gambling. Results: Our review found no evidence to support the assumption that individuals cannot recover from disordered gambling (that is, the persistence assumption), no evidence to support the assumption that individuals who have more severe gambling problems are less likely to improve than individuals who have less severe gambling problems (that is, the selective-stability assumption), and no evidence to support the assumption that individuals who have some gambling problems are more likely to worsen than individuals who do not have gambling problems (that is, the progression assumption). Conclusion: Contrary to professional and conventional wisdom suggesting that gambling problems are always progressive and enduring, this review demonstrates instability and multidirectional courses in disordered gambling.

LaPlante DA; Shaffer HJ. Understanding the influence of gambling opportunities: Expanding exposure models to include adaptation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 77(4): 616-623, 2007. (48 refs.)

Many regions are considering expanding the various forms of gambling that are available to residents. The expansion of legalized gambling frequently is the topic of heated debate because of possible harmful ramifications on individuals' mental and physical health as well as the public's health in general. Conventional wisdom holds that the expansion of gambling relates to increases in gambling-related problems among the population (i.e., the exposure effect). A review of empirical evidence provides an opportunity to verify the accuracy of this wisdom. An evaluation of available research studies provides some support for the exposure effect, but also raises questions about the durability of that phenomenon across settings and time points. Some exposure studies indicate specific patterns of gambling activity and consequences that are inconsistent with the exposure effect. These studies suggest that some people and some places might have adapted to the risks and hazards of gambling (i.e., the adaptation effect). This evaluation suggests that social context is an important moderator of exposure processes.

Ledgerwood DM; Weinstock J; Morasco BJ; Petry NM. Clinical features and treatment prognosis of pathological gamblers with and without recent gambling-related illegal behavior. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 35(3): 294-301, 2007. (29/data refs.)

A substantial proportion of pathological gamblers engage in gambling-related illegal behavior. We examined differences in baseline characteristics and treatment outcomes in two groups: pathological gamblers who did and did not commit gambling-related illegal acts in the year before treatment. Participants were 231 pathological gamblers enrolled in a randomized study of treatment that included cognitive behavior therapy and referral to Gamblers Anonymous (GA). Participants reporting recent illegal behavior (n = 63) endorsed more severe lifetime and recent (past-year) gambling disorder symptoms and higher gambling-related debt than did gamblers who denied illegal behavior (n = 168). Those who reported illegal behavior also maintained a significantly higher severity of gambling disorder throughout treatment, although both groups experienced similar improvements in gambling symptoms over time. While pathological gamblers with or without gambling-related illegal behavior appeared to improve at a similar rate regardless of the treatment provided, more intensive treatment may be warranted for individuals with gambling-related illegal behavior, as they demonstrated greater gambling severity throughout treatment and follow-up.

Lee HS; Lemanski JL; Jun JW. Role of gambling media exposure in influencing trajectories among college students. Journal of Gambling Studies 24(1): 25-37, 2008. (54 refs.)

In the study, a model of the relationship between mass media depictions of gambling and subsequent gambling attitudes and behavioral intentions of college students was developed. A survey was conducted with 229 undergraduate students (79.5% female, mean age = 20.5, SD = 2.04) enrolled in three different communication courses at a large southeastern university. Through structural equation analysis, the six hypotheses of this study were analyzed using the method of maximum likelihood with AMOS 6. The model was consistent with the hypotheses that media exposure impacts gambling attitudes and behavioral intentions both positively and negatively, depending on the valence of the gambling depiction. Theoretical and practical implications of mass media exposure and gambling behaviors are discussed, and future research directions are outlined.

Leiserson V; Pihl RO. Reward-sensitivity, inhibition of reward-seeking, and dorsolateral prefrontal working memory function in problem gamblers not in treatment. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(4): 435-455, 2007. (90 refs.)

Given the central role of perseverative chasing in problem gambling, the present study sought to find evidence for three hypothesized components of perseveration in problem gamblers: reward-sensitivity dominance, deficient inhibition of reward-seeking behavior, and working memory deficits. This was the first attempt to examine working memory deficits in problem gamblers using a conditional association task, which is associated with posterior-dorsolateral prefrontal functioning. In a sample that was not in treatment, and representative in terms of comorbidity, problem gamblers performed significantly worse on the conditional association working memory tasks after controlling for general memory function, compared to demographically-matched controls. This is significant because deficits in the dorsolateral prefrontal region have been consistently associated with perseveration, which suggests that problem gamblers' perseverative chasing may be associated with a working memory deficit. Problem gamblers were not significantly higher than at-risk gamblers in terms of reward-sensitivity dominance (measured as a personality trait in terms of extraversion) suggesting that it may not be specifically associated with problem gambling. Sensation-seeking was also not associated with problem gambling in a sample that corrected for the methodological problems of previous studies which examined it. The need for gambling research to focus specifically on the perseverative inability to stop gambling is emphasized, and the present findings of specific working memory deficits in problem gamblers suggest the need for further examination of working memory as a potential risk factor for problem gambling. We propose that subsequent studies examine working memory in terms of the self-regulatory capacity for goal maintenance where attention must specifically be allocated to resist interference.

Lund I. Lessons from the grey area: A closer inspection of at-risk gamblers. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(4): 409-419, 2007. (24 refs.)

The study takes a closer look at at-risk gamblers, with the objective to see how they differ from no-risk gamblers. The data comes from a national gambling survey in 2002, and the age group is 15-74 years. The sample consists of 4188 current gamblers with no current gambling problems or pathology. The analysis includes cross-tabulations and a logistic regression. The results show that at-risk gamblers differed substantially from no-risk gamblers in terms of demographic characteristics, gambling behaviour and the presence of other assumed risk factors. Demographic segments with a higher risk of falling into the at-risk group are men, young people, divorced or single people, and non-western immigrants. Furthermore, gambling problems in the family, beginners luck and misconceptions about winning chances significantly increased the odds for at-risk gambling. The study concludes that at-risk gamblers deserve more attention from research, that their similarity with problem gamblers increases the likelihood that many of them will eventually develop a gambling problem, and that their tendency to be superstitious about winning chances might be exploited in preventive work.

Maccallum F; Blaszczynski A; Ladouceur R; Nower L. Functional and dysfunctional impulsivity in pathological gambling. Personality and Individual Differences 43(7): 1829-1838, 2007. (36 refs.)

Impaired control leading to excessive gambling and subsequent adverse consequences is the primary feature of pathological gambling. Defined as an impulse control disorder, elevated traits of impulsivity are associated with increased levels of intensity of gambling and symptoms severity and are predictive of treatment dropout. However, to date, research has failed to explore the differential effects of functional and dysfunctional impulsivity in gambling and the relationship between these two forms of impulsivity to treatment compliance and treatment outcome. This study investigates the interrelationship between functional and dysfunctional impulsivity as measured by the Dickman (1990) scale, gambling severity, substance use and depression in a clinical sample of 60 pathological gamblers seeking cognitive-behavioural therapy. Results indicate that dysfunctional impulsivity is associated with poorer response to treatment but not with treatment completion.

MacLin OH; Dixon MR; Daugherty D; Small SL. Using a computer simulation of three slot machines to investigate a gambler's preference among varying densities of near-miss alternatives. Behavior Research Methods 39(2): 237-241, 2007. (10 refs.)

The present article describes a software program in Visual Basic NET designed to simulate three slot machines on a computer screen. This software is described in detail regarding utility, downloading, and usage; and data are presented illustrating the software's potential for researchers interested in gambling behavior. A simulation of multiple slot machines such as this enables researchers to evaluate players' preferences across various machines. In the highlighted experiment, 18 recreational slot machine players played the software for extra course credit and a chance at cash prizes. All participants played a version of the simulation in which every 5th response on average was a win, whereas the remaining trials were a loss. However, on those loss trials, a varying distribution of almost wins or near misses (i.e., two winning symbols on the payoff line and the final winning symbol directly above or below the payoff line) were presented in percentages of 15, 30, or 45. While no preferences across the three options could be predicted on the basis of reinforcement history alone, deviations from equal choices across the games were noted and appeared to be the result of the presentations of near-miss losing trials. Implications for a greater understanding of pathological gambling are presented.

Madden GJ; Ewan EE; Lagorio CH. Toward an animal model of gambling: Delay discounting and the allure of unpredictable outcomes. (review). Journal of Gambling Studies 23(1): 63-83, 2007. (127 refs.)

Laboratory investigations of gambling are sometimes criticized as lacking ecological validity because the stakes wagered by human subjects are not real or no real monetary losses are experienced. These problems may be partially addressed by studying gambling in laboratory animals. Toward this end, data are summarized which demonstrate that laboratory animals will work substantially harder and prefer to work under gambling-like schedules of reinforcement in which the number of responses per win is unpredictable. These findings are consistent with a delay discounting model of gambling which holds that rewards obtained following unpredictable delays are more valuable than rewards obtained following predictable delays. According to the delay discounting model, individuals that discount delayed rewards at a high rate (like pathological gamblers) perceive unpredictably delayed rewards to be of substantially greater value than predictable rewards. The reviewed findings and empirical model support the utility of studying animal behavior as an ecologically valid first-approximation of human gambling.

Mays GL; Casillas C; Maupin JR. The impact of Indian gaming on crime in New Mexico: A research note. Social Science Journal 44(2): 375-381, 2007. (5 refs.)

The complexity of the relationship between gambling and crime make empirical establishment of a relationship between the two difficult. Focusing on one state, we examine the impact of Indian gaming on crime in New Mexico. Specific crime rates in New Mexico counties with tribal gaming are discussed. Comparisons of the rates of specific crimes are made between New Mexico counties with tribal gaming and those without.

McIntyre RS; McElroy SL; Konarski JZ; Soczynska JK; Wilkins K; Kennedy SH. Problem gambling in bipolar disorder: Results from the Canadian community health survey. Journal of Affective Disorders 102(1-3): 27-34, 2007. (40 refs.)

Objective: This investigation was undertaken to explore the prevalence and associated features of problem gambling amongst individuals with bipolar I disorder. Methods: The data for this analysis were procured from the Canadian Community Health Survey: Mental Health and Well-being (CCHS 1.2) conducted by Statistics Canada. Individuals screening positive for a lifetime (World Mental Health-Composite Intemational Diagnostic Interview) WMH-CIDI-defined manic episode (i.e. bipolar I disorder) or depressive episode (i.e. major depressive disorder) and current (i.e. past 12-month) problem gambling were compared to the general population without these disorders. Past year problem gambling was operationalized with the Canadian Problem Gambling Index (CPGI). Results: The sample consisted of 36,984 individuals (! 15 years old); the weighted prevalence of problem gambling was significantly higher (6.3%) amongst the population with bipolar disorder as compared to the general population (2.0%, p < 0.001) and those with major depressive disorder (2.5%, p < 0.01). Compared to those without bipolar disorder, the odds of problem gambling for bipolar individuals were over twice as high (OR=2.3; 95% CI 1.4-3.7), even when controlling for potential confounders. Males also had higher odds of problem gambling (OR=1.8; 95% Cl 1.4-2.3), as did individuals without post-secondary education (OR= 1.4; 95% CI 1.1-1.8). Persons who were married/cohabiting had lowered odds of problem gambling, compared with those who were unmarried (OR=0.6; 95% CI 0.5-0.8). Comorbid alcohol dependence (OR=3.4; 95% CI 2.3-5.0) and illicit drug dependence (OR= 2.6; 95% CI 1.1-6.2) each conferred an increased risk for problem gambling. Physical activity level (moderate to active) was associated with a decreased risk for problem gambling (OR=0.8; 95% CI 0.6-0.9). Conclusions: Individuals with bipolar I disorder are differentially affected by problem gambling. Opportunistic screening for problem gambling is warranted, particularly in persons with comorbid alcohol or substance dependence.

Meenan AL. Internet gaming: A hidden addiction (editorial). American Family Physician 76(8): 1116-1117, 2007. (6 refs.)

Melville KM; Casey LM; Kavanagh DJ. Psychological treatment dropout among pathological gamblers. (review). Clinical Psychology Review 27(8): 944-958, 2007. (67 refs.)

Premature dropout from treatments for pathological gambling is potentially of significant importance, if it occurs before substantial progress has been made in addressing the problem. A systematic review of current research on dropout from psychological treatments for pathological gambling identified 12 studies from five countries. Dropout ranged from 14% to 50%, with a median of dropout 26%. Overall, 31% of the participants dropped out of treatment. Few studies distinguish between dropouts at different stages of participation. The evidence on specific variables that predict dropout is limited or inconsistent, and is characterised by a lack of a coherent, gambling-specific model and by methodological problems. Two studies that attempted to apply motivational and compliance-enhancing techniques were found. Both showed promising effects on reduction of dropout and improvement of short-term impact of treatment, but inconsistent results on longer-term outcomes were obtained. The review highlighted a need for more rigorous investigation of the extent of dropout and of variables associated with dropout from pathological gambling treatment programs. Further research on interventions to enhance retention and reduce dropout from psychological treatment is also required.

Messerlian C; Gillespie M; Derevensky JL. Beyond drugs and alcohol: Including gambling in a high-risk behavioural framework. Paediatrics and Child Health 12(3): 199-204, 2007. (30 refs.)

Studies throughout North America have suggested that more adolescents are gambling today than in the past. Over the past decade, gambling has become a popular form of entertainment and part of mainstream society. With the increase in gambling availability has come a rise in not only the number of youth who participate in gambling, but also the number who exhibit serious gambling problems. There is growing concern that adolescents and young adults are the highest risk group for problem gambling. The National Research Council, in its critical review of pathological gambling, indicated that the prevalence of problem gambling among adolescents is consistently higher than among adults, despite differences in measurement. Yet, efforts to prevent and treat problems among this population have only recently emerged as an important adolescent health issue. The present article reviews the risk factors, mental health correlates and warning signs of adolescent gambling problems, with the aim of raising awareness among health professionals working with Youth of the need to address this issue within their practices.

Moodie C; Hastings G. Gambling with the future of young people. (editorial). Addiction Research & Theory 16(2): 107-110, 2008. (17 refs.)

Neighbors C; Lostutter TW; Whiteside U; Fossos N; Walker DD; Larimer ME. Injunctive norms and problem gambling among college students. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(3): 259-273, 2007. (60 refs.)

Two studies examined the relationships among injunctive norms and college student gambling. In study 1 we evaluated the accuracy of perceptions of other students' approval of gambling and the relationship between perceived approval and gambling behavior. In study 2 we evaluated gambling behavior as a function of perceptions of approval of other students, friends, and family. In study 1, which included 2524 college students, perceptions of other students' approval of gambling were found to be overestimated and were negatively associated with gambling behavior. The results of study 2, which included 565 college students, replicated the findings of study 1 and revealed positive associations between gambling behavior and perceived approval of friends and family. Results highlight the complexity of injunctive norms and the importance of considering the reference group (e. g., peers, friends, family members) in their evaluation. Results also encourage caution in considering the incorporation of injunctive norms in prevention and intervention approaches.

Nelson TF; LaBrie RA; LaPlante DA; Stanton M; Shaffer HJ; Wechsler H. Sports betting and other gambling in athletes, fans, and other college students. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 78(4): 271-283, 2007. (60 refs.)

Gambling on college and professional sports and the influence of attending colleges with differing levels of "sports interest" were examined among athletes, sports fans, and other students (N = 10,559) at 119 colleges in the United States using multilevel statistical analysis. Athletes and fans reported more sports gambling compared to other students, with no differences between athletes and fans. Male students were more likely to gamble than female students, but gender did not moderate the relationship between athletic participation and sports gambling. Students attending schools with a greater "Sports interest" were more likely to gamble on college sports after adjusting for individual characteristics. Athletes, sports fans, and students attending schools with high "sports interest" are appropriate targets for prevention efforts.

Newman SC; Thompson AH. The association between pathological gambling and attempted suicide: Findings from a national survey in Canada. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 52(9): 605-612, 2007. (28 refs.)

Objective: To examine the association between pathological gambling (PG) and attempted suicide in a nationally representative sample of Canadians. Methods: Data came from the Canadian Community Health Survey, Cycle 1.2, conducted in 2002, in which 36 984 subjects, aged 15 years or older, were interviewed. Logistic 14 regression was performed with attempted suicide (in the past year) as the dependent variable. The independent variables were PG, major depression, alcohol dependence, drug dependence, and mental health care (in the past year), as well as a range of sociodemographic variables. Survey weights and bootstrap methods were used to account for the complex survey design. Results: In the final logistic regression model, which included terms for PG, major depression, alcohol dependence, and mental health care, as well as age, sex, education, and income, the odds ratio for PG and attempted suicide was 3.43 (95% confidence interval, 1.37 to 8.60). Conclusions: PG (in the past year) and attempted suicide (in the past year) are associated in a nationally representative sample of Canadians. However, it is not possible to say from these data whether this represents a causal relation.

Ngo AD; Mccurdy SA; Ross MW; Markham C; Ratliff EA; Pham HTB. The lives of female sex workers in Vietnam: Findings from a qualitative study. Culture, Health and Sexuality 9(6): 555-570, 2007. (19 refs.)

To facilitate better understanding of the environment and power structures in which sex work in Vietnam takes place, this study examined the sex workers' social and economic lives, their working environment, social relationships and presentation of self in everyday social contacts and interactions. Thirty in-depth interviews and 14 focus groups were conducted with street-based and venue-based sex workers in the cities of Da Nang and Hanoi. Results show that sex workers live and work within a complex system involving multiple relationships. In any of these relations, women have limited power to protect their personal security and secure payment for services rendered. Economic hardship is a major problem facing street-level sex workers and contributes to unsafe sexual practices. Venue-based sex workers worry less about economic hardships as such, but frequently incur gambling debts. Women also reported incidents of abuse and experiences of social stigma. Although many women exhibited a strong desire to leave sex work, they found themselves trapped in the sex industry by the lack of alternative employment options. This study provides evidence that socio-psychological factors must be addressed along with risky behaviours to promote women's well-being and social integration.

Nicolato R; Romano-Silva MA; Correa H; Salgado JV; Teixeira AL. Lithium and topiramate association in the treatment of comorbid pathological gambling and bipolar disorder. (letter). Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 41(7): 628-628, 2007. (5 refs.)

Nordin C; Nylander PO. Temperament and character in pathological gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies 23(2): 113-120, 2007. (24 refs.)

Objective We have studied temperament and character in pathological gambling (PG). Methods Thirty-eight DSM-IV verified pathological gamblers (31 males and 7 females; mean age 35.4 +/- 10.4 years) were tested with Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). Matched controls were chosen from the normal population. Results Pathological gamblers scored higher on the temperament factors novelty seeking (NS) and harm avoidance (HA). The most pronounced difference was found in the character factor self-directedness (SD). The pathological gamblers differed from controls in cooperativeness and self-transcendence. A personality disorder was found in 29% of the pathological gamblers 84% of whom scored either low on SD and high on impulsivity or had a more dishonest behaviour. Two-thirds of pathological gamblers showed immature character with or without high HA in temperament. The other third showed normal-character extravagant behaviour (86%), high impulsivity (36%) and less responsibility (50%) being the most common personality traits. Conclusion HA and NS might be trait-like characteristics in PG.

Oakes J; Battersby MW; Pols RG; Cromarty P. Exposure therapy for problem gambling via videoconferencing: A case report. Journal of Gambling Studies 24(1): 107-118, 2008. (28 refs.)

This case report of a 31 year old woman who described her main problem as an uncontrollable urge to gamble on electronic gaming machines describes the application of exposure therapy (ET) by videoconferencing and the use of a clinical therapy assistant in the treatment of pathological gambling. The case study is used to demonstrate the effectiveness of this treatment with six sessions of therapy and 4 year follow up. The use of videoconferencing is discussed in relation to treatment effectiveness, ongoing follow up for the client and education and support for a community mental health nurse, therapy assistant, in a rural setting in South Australia. The implications of using this modality for the treatment of rural patients with problem gambling is discussed.

Oei TPS; Gordon LM. Psychosocial factors related to gambling abstinence and relapse in members of gamblers anonymous. Journal of Gambling Studies 24(1): 91-105, 2008. (60 refs.)

Problem gamblers account for almost one-third of the industry's total revenue with the adverse effects of problem gambling including significant financial loss, legal and occupational difficulties, family problems, psychological distress and suicide. As such, it is important to understand the influential factors in gambling abstinence and relapse, which will assist in the development of relapse prevention methods in therapeutic treatment regimes. This paper reported the role of a set of seven predictors in distinguishing between abstinent and relapsed gamblers among 75 Gambling Anonymous (GA) members (55 males; 20 females; Mean age 45 years) in Southeast Queensland. The measures taken were meeting Attendance and Participation, Social Support, God Belief, Belief in a Higher Power, Working the 12-steps of Recovery, Gambling Urges and Erroneous Cognitions. Discriminant analysis revealed that the variables separating the two groups were significant, suggesting that GA members achieving abstinence could be distinguished from those who relapsed, with Attendance and Participation, and Social Support contributing the greatest influence on member's ability to abstain from gambling. The findings suggested that GA member's involvement in meetings, and support from family and friends had significant impact on their gambling abstinence. In contrast, increased gambling urges and erroneous cognitions increased the chance of relapse.

Oei TPS; Lin J; Raylu N. Validation of the chinese version of the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS-C). Journal of Gambling Studies 23(3): 309-322, 2007. (46 refs.)

Gambling cognitions have constantly been associated with the development and maintenance of problem gambling. Despite researchers reporting high rates of gambling and problem gambling among the Chinese, little is known about the role of gambling cognitions among Chinese individuals (Raylu & Oei, 2004a). This is partly because there is a lack of validated instruments to assess gambling cognitions in this population. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to examine and validate the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale-Chinese version (GRCS-C), which was based on the 23-item Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS; Raylu & Oei, 2004b). Confirmatory Factory Analysis (CFA) using 422 Chinese participants (166 Male, 256 Female; Mean age