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CORK Bibliography: Expectancies

74 citations. January 2011 to present

Prepared: March 2012

Anderson KG; Grunwald I; Bekman N; Brown SA; Grant A. To drink or not to drink: Motives and expectancies for use and nonuse in adolescence. Addictive Behaviors 36(10): 972-979, 2011. (53 refs.)

Drinking motives have a prominent role in cognitive models of adolescent and adult alcohol decision-making (Cooper, Russell, Skinner, & Windle, 1992; Cooper, 1994). The complementary construct of motivation not to drink has received less attention (Epler, Sher & Piasecki, 2009). We examined how abstinence motives interacted with drinking motives and alcohol expectancies to predict alcohol consumption in samples of US high school students (N > 2500). Nondrinking motives predicted lower rates of lifetime and current alcohol use. Motives not to drink interacted with specific drinking motives, like social and coping motives, and alcohol expectancies to predict certain aspects of drinking behavior. For example, motives not to drink had the greatest impact on youth with weaker social motivations. Findings highlight the distinction between motives not to drink and other alcohol-related cognitions in predicting adolescent alcohol consumption. This work not only supports the utility of this construct in developing models of youth alcohol-related decision-making but also has implications for prevention programming.

Andrews JA; Hampson S; Peterson M. Early adolescent cognitions as predictors of heavy alcohol use in high school. Addictive Behaviors 36(5): 448-455, 2011. (54 refs.)

The present study predicts heavy alcohol use across the high school years (aged 14 through 18) from cognitions regarding the use of alcohol assessed in middle school. Using Latent Growth Modeling, we examined a structural model using data from 1011 participants in the Oregon Youth Substance Use Project. In this model, social images and descriptive norms regarding alcohol use in grade 7 were related to willingness and intention to drink alcohol in grade 8 and these variables were subsequently related to the intercept and slope of extent of heavy drinking across the high school years (grades 9 through 12). Across the sample, both descriptive norms and social images influenced the intercept of heavy drinking (in the 9th grade) through willingness to drink alcohol. Multiple sample analyses showed that social images also were directly related to the intercept of heavy drinking, for girls only. Results suggest that cognitions regarding alcohol use in middle school predict subsequent heavy drinking in high school. These findings emphasize the need for prevention programs targeting changing students' social images and encouraging a more accurate perception of peers' use when students are in middle school.

Arbeau KJ; Kuiken D; Wild TC. Drinking to enhance and to cope: A daily process study of motive specificity. Addictive Behaviors 36(12): 1174-1183, 2011. (52 refs.)

Objective: Daily process studies of internal drinking motives have not examined motive specificity, i.e., whether theoretically plausible trait and situational antecedents differ in their ability to predict the extent to which alcohol consumption on any given day is motivated by coping or enhancement. Method: University students (N = 81) completed trait measures of coping and enhancement-motivated drinking (trait CM and EM), sensation seeking, and conscientiousness, and then completed a 14-day online diary assessing daily completion of tasks, daily alcohol use, and (on days when alcohol was consumed) the extent to which drinking was motivated by coping or enhancement (daily CM and EM). Results: Hierarchical linear models revealed unique situational and trait antecedents of daily CM and EM. In the daily EM drinking model, main effects of daily positive affect (b = 0.11, p<0.05). trait EM (b = 2.88, p<0.01), and trait sensation seeking (b = 0.36, p<0.01) were qualified by cross-level interactions between daily task accomplishment and trait conscientiousness (b = 0.03, p<0.01), and daily task accomplishment and trait sensation seeking (b = 0.03, p<0.01). In the daily CM drinking model, main effects of daily positive affect (b = -0.08, p<0.05), daily negative affect (b = 0.13, p<0.05), and trait CM (b = 4.40, p<0.01), were qualified by cross-level interactions between trait CM and daily positive affect (b = -0.12, p<0.05), trait CM and daily negative affect (b = 0.18, p<0.01), and trait conscientiousness and daily task accomplishment (b = 0.01, p<0.01). Conclusion: Our results replicated and extended Cooper et al.'s (1995) findings on the differential roles of sensation seeking and negative affect in CM and EM drinking at the daily level, and call into question the view that drinking motives should be solely conceptualized as individual difference variables. Theoretical and applied implications of the findings are discussed.

Bekman NM; Anderson KG; Trim RS; Metrik J; Diulio AR; Myers MG et al. Thinking and drinking: Alcohol-related cognitions across stages of adolescent alcohol involvement. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 25(3): 415-425, 2011. (42 refs.)

Alcohol-related cognitions, particularly expectancies for drinking and nondrinking and motives for nondrinking, are involved in the initiation, maintenance, and cessation of alcohol use and are hypothesized to play key roles in adolescent decision making. This study explored (a) the relationships between alcohol use expectancies, nondrinking expectancies, and nondrinking motives; (b) the roles of these cognitions across hypothesized developmental stages of adolescent alcohol use; and (c) the relationships between these cognitions and recent or intended future changes in drinking behavior in a cross-sectional sample. Surveys assessing alcohol use behaviors and attitudes were administered to 1,648 high school students. Heavier drinkers reported more positive alcohol use expectancies and fewer nondrinking motives than did lighter drinkers or nondrinkers; however, nondrinking expectancies only differed between nondrinkers and rare drinkers and all subsequent drinking classes. Alcohol use expectancies, nondrinking expectancies, and nondrinking motives differentiated students who recently initiated alcohol from those who had not, while nondrinking expectancies and nondrinking motives differentiated binge-drinking students who had made recent efforts to reduce/stop their drinking from those who had not. Intentions to initiate or reduce drinking in the coming month were also associated with these alcohol-related cognitions. Drinking and nondrinking expectancies and motives for not drinking may play critical roles in decisions to alter alcohol-use behavior during adolescence. Future exploration of temporal relationships between changes in alcohol-related cognitions and behavioral decision making will be useful in the refinement of effective prevention and intervention strategies.

Belles S; Budde A; Moesgen D; Klein M. Parental problem drinking predicts implicit alcohol expectancy in adolescents and young adults. Addictive Behaviors 36(11): 1091-1094, 2011. (27 refs.)

The present study aimed to investigate the influence of parental problem drinking on implicit and explicit alcohol expectancy of adolescents and young adults (12-24 years). The study was conducted via the Internet, employing a between-subjects design. We measured alcohol expectancy by means of an Implicit Association Test (IAT) and a self-report questionnaire. A short version of the Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (CAST) was used to measure alcohol-related parental problem behavior. Our results showed that increased CAST-scores were correlated with a stronger implicit association between the concepts alcohol and arousal. In contrast, no such relationship was observed between parental problem drinking and self-reported expectancy of alcohol arousal. These findings provide tentative evidence that an implicit cognitive processing bias is implicated in the intergenerational transmission of addictive behaviors.

Bernstein J; Graczyk A; Lawrence D; Bernstein E; Strunin L. Determinants of drinking trajectories among minority youth and young adults: The interaction of risk and resilience. Youth & Society 43(4): 1199-1219, 2011. (61 refs.)

Adolescent drinking research has focused heavily on risks for alcohol-related consequences and on personality traits associated with adverse alcohol-related outcomes. A risk-based paradigm may inadvertently overemphasize risk when measures are applied to communities that experience discrimination and socioeconomic disadvantage. In this study we use qualitative methods to examine drinking motives and the relationship between motives and patterns of risk and resilience among a diverse group of 60 youth and young adults enrolled in an independent trial of brief intervention for alcohol use at an inner-city pediatric emergency department and report on their own understandings of their experiences, particularly their reasons for drinking. We found a clear distinction between drinking to "chill" and drinking to "cope" with very different projected life course trajectories despite similarities between groups in neighborhood and interpersonal stressors. Strategies to motivate "copers" to alter drinking behavior may need to be shored up with a network of support services.

Bilard J; Ninot G; Hauw D. Motives for illicit use of doping substances among athletes calling a national antidoping phone-help service: An exploratory study. Substance Use & Misuse 46(4): 359-367, 2011. (39 refs.)

This study aimed to construct a hierarchy of motives linked to doping behaviors. Between 2000 and 2005, calls to a national antidoping phone-help service by 115 cyclists, 203 bodybuilders, and 40 footballers were analyzed. The results showed that the main motives were preserving health for cyclists, increasing muscular strength for bodybuilders, and personal recreation for footballers. However, in contrast to the literature, group influence was low and health preoccupations were high for cyclists; the influence of body image was relatively low for bodybuilders; and footballers cited muscular strength enhancement as a motive. The study's limitations are noted. The prevention campaigns therefore need to be specific.

Blundell JE; Finlayson G. Food addiction not helpful: The hedonic component - implicit wanting - is important. (editorial). Addiction 106(7): 1216-1218, 2011. (17 refs.)

Brown PC; Alfonso J; Dunn ME. Gamma hydroxybutyrate use: Exploring the influence of outcome expectancies through memory modeling. American Journal on Addictions 20(2): 127-136, 2011. (64 refs.)

Gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) has been linked to overdose, criminal surreptitious administration, the need for emergency medical care, and fatalities worldwide. To begin to identify and understand the motivational factors that lead to the use of GHB, the present investigation utilized methods that have been successful in identifying potential expectancy targets and have been incorporated into prevention and intervention strategies successful in reducing high-risk alcohol use. In the present investigation, GHB expectancies were elicited from 926 voluntary participants aged 18-60 at a university in the southeastern United States to develop the GHB Expectancy Questionnaire (GHBEQ). The GHBEQ was subsequently administered to a different sample of 1,373 participants aged 18-55 in order to empirically derive the possible organization of GHB expectancies in memory, including likely paths of GHB expectancy activation. Findings suggest differences in GHB expectancies based on use history and sex. These results can be used to understand differences in GHB use for men and women, and to develop expectancy-based prevention and intervention programing to prevent and reduce its use in high-risk populations.

Bujarski SJ; Feldner MT; Lewis SF; Babson KA; Trainor CD; Leen-Feldner Ellen et al. Marijuana use among traumatic event-exposed adolescents: Posttraumatic stress symptom frequency predicts coping motivations for use. Addictive Behaviors 37(1): 53-59, 2012. (49 refs.)

Contemporary comorbidity theory postulates that people suffering from posttraumatic stress symptoms may use substances to cope with negative affect generally and posttraumatic stress symptoms specifically. The present study involves the examination of the unique relation between past two-week posttraumatic stress symptom frequency and motives for marijuana use after accounting for general levels of negative affectivity as well as variability associated with gender. Participants were 61 marijuana-using adolescents (M(age)=15.81) who reported experiencing lifetime exposure to at least one traumatic event. Consistent with predictions, past two-week posttraumatic stress symptoms significantly predicted coping motives for marijuana use and were not associated with social, enhancement, or conformity motives for use. These findings are consistent with theoretical work suggesting people suffering from posttraumatic stress use substances to regulate symptoms.

Calhoun PS; Levin HF; Dedert EA; Johnson Y; Beckham JC. The relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder and smoking outcome expectancies among US military veterans who served since September 11, 2001. Journal of Traumatic Stress 24(3): 303-308, 2011. (23 refs.)

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with increased rates of smoking although little is known regarding the mechanisms underlying this relationship. The current study examined expectations about smoking outcomes among smokers with and without PTSD. The sample included 96 veterans (mean age of 34 years) and included 17% women and 50% racial minorities. Smoking expectancies were measured with the Smoking Consequences Questionnaire-Adult (Copeland, Brandon, & Quinn, 1995). Consistent with previous work suggesting that smokers with PTSD smoke in an effort to reduce negative affect, unadjusted analyses indicated that smokers with PTSD (n = 38) had higher expectations that smoking reduces negative affect than smokers without PTSD (d = 0.61). Smokers with PTSD also had increased expectancies associated with boredom reduction (d = 0.48), stimulation (d = 0.61), taste/sensorimotor manipulation aspects of smoking (d = 0.73), and social facilitation (d = 0.61). Results of hierarchical linear regression analyses indicated that PTSD symptom severity was uniquely associated with these expectancies beyond the effects of gender and nicotine dependence. More positive beliefs about the consequences of smoking may increase risk of continued smoking among those with PTSD who smoke. Further understanding of smoking expectancies in this group may help in developing interventions tailored for this vulnerable population.

Campos-Melady M; Smith JE. Memory associations between negative emotions and alcohol on the lexical decision task predict alcohol use in women. Addictive Behaviors 37(1): 60-66, 2012. (69 refs.)

Implicit alcohol expectancies, or beliefs about alcohol which exist in the form of automatic memory associations, are thought to uniquely affect drinking behavior. Research also has indicated that there may be a distinctive relationship between negative reinforcement and alcohol use in women. However, the most common measures used to examine implicit alcohol cognitions may be insufficient to examine associations involving negative reinforcement. The current study utilized the Lexical Decision Task (LDT) to examine the relationship between implicit alcohol cognitions and reported drinking in a sample of college women. Seventy-eight female participants completed a LDT including alcohol- and emotion-words, questionnaire measures of explicit alcohol expectancies, and a measure of drinking behavior at baseline and after two months. Strong associations between negative emotion-words and alcohol-words (as measured by the LDT) were found to predict drinking at follow up, and to account for unique variance in drinking beyond the contribution of explicit measures. In addition, women who reported heavier drinking in response to social conflict on an explicit measure showed stronger priming of alcohol words by negative emotion words, thus implying that the LDT may tap into implicit cognitions related to alcohol use as a method of coping. These findings suggest that the LDT is sensitive to negative-reinforcement associations in a way that other measures are not.

Chikere EIC; Mayowa MO. Prevalence and perceived health effect of alcohol use among male undergraduate students in Owerri, South-East Nigeria: a descriptive cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 11: article 118, 2011. (15 refs.)

Background: Alcohol use during adolescence and young adulthood remains a prominent public health problem. Despite growing problems of global alcohol abuse, accurate information on the prevalence and pattern of use in Nigeria remain sparse. This study examines the prevalence and perceived health effects of alcohol use among undergraduate students in Owerri, Nigeria. Method: The prevalence and perceived health effects of alcohol was estimated for 482 male undergraduates of four higher institutions in Owerri, South-East Nigeria between October 2008 and March 2009. Information was obtained using a semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire. Result: The mean age of the students was 24.7 years. Majority of the respondents confirmed they were current users of alcohol given a prevalence of 78.4%, with twenty-seven percent of them being heavy drinkers (>= 4 drinks per day). Reasons given by respondents for alcohol drinking include: makes them feel high (24.4%); makes them belong to the group of "most happening guys" on campus (6.6%); makes them feel relaxed (52.6%) while (16.4%) drinks it because their best friends do. Perceived health impacts of alcohol use among current users include: it enhances pleasure during moment of sex (51.1%), causes drowsiness and weakness (63.8%), may precipitate defective memory and impaired perception (64.3%) and serves as risk factor for most chronic diseases (68.5%). Conclusion: High prevalence of alcohol use was established among study groups. Evaluation of full-scale community-level intervention, including community mobilisation and media advocacy aimed at supporting changes in policies on drinking, access and sales of alcohol to young people, could be helpful in reducing the trend.

Clark HK; Ringwalt CL; Shamblen SR. Predicting adolescent substance use: The effects of depressed mood and positive expectancies. Addictive Behaviors 36(5): 488-493, 2011. (52 refs.)

This study examined whether sixth-graders' depressed mood and positive substance use expectancies predicted increases over the next two years in students' lifetime and 30-day cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use, and whether sixth graders' positive substance use expectancies moderated the relationship between baseline depressed mood and changes over the next two years in the use of these substances. Study data came from a randomized controlled trial of Project ALERT, a school-based substance use prevention program, in which students from 34 schools completed self-report surveys as sixth (n = 5782), seventh (n = 5065), and eighth graders (n = 4940). Primary analyses were performed using Hierarchical Nonlinear Modeling. Over time, there were significant effects of baseline positive expectancies on each of the six measures of substance use. Baseline depressed mood predicted increases over time only for lifetime use of cigarettes and alcohol, and for 30-day alcohol use. Positive expectancies significantly moderated the effects of adolescent depressed mood only on lifetime marijuana use. Although depressed mood predicted substance use for half of our variables, our results suggest that positive expectancies are a more consistent predictor of adolescent substance use, and that they may moderate the effects of depressed mood on marijuana, but not cigarette or alcohol, use. Substance use prevention programs may benefit from addressing adolescents' perceptions about the positive consequences of drug use.

Clough AR; MacLaren DJ; Robertson JA; Ivers RG; Conigrave KM. Can we measure daily tobacco consumption in remote Indigenous communities? Comparing self-reported tobacco consumption with community-level estimates in an Arnhem Land study. Drug and Alcohol Review 30(2): 166-172, 2011. (15 refs.)

Introduction and Aims. In remote Indigenous Australian communities measuring individual tobacco use can be confounded by cultural expectations, including sharing. We compared self-reported tobacco consumption with community-level estimates in Arnhem Land (Northern Territory). Design and Methods. In a cross-sectional survey in three communities (population 2319 Indigenous residents, aged >= 16 years), 400 Indigenous residents were interviewed (206 men, 194 women). Eight community stores provided information about tobacco sold during the survey. To gauge the impact of 255 non-Indigenous residents on tobacco turnover, 10 were interviewed (five men, five women). Breath carbon monoxide levels confirmed self-reported smoking. Self-reported number of cigarettes smoked per day was compared with daily tobacco consumption per user estimated using amounts of tobacco sold during 12 months before the survey (2007-2008). 'Lighter smokers' (< 10 cigarettes per day) and 'heavier smokers' (>= 10 cigarettes per day) in men and women were compared. Results. Of 400 Indigenous study participants, 305 (76%) used tobacco; four chewed tobacco. Of 301 Indigenous smokers, 177 (58%) provided self-reported consumption information; a median of 11-11.5 cigarettes per day in men and 5.5-10 cigarettes per day in women. Men were three times (odds ratio = 2.9) more likely to be 'heavier smokers'. Store turnover data indicated that Indigenous tobacco users consumed the equivalent of 9.2-13.1 cigarettes per day; very similar to self-reported levels. Sixty per cent (= 6/10) of non-Indigenous residents interviewed were smokers, but with little impact on tobacco turnover overall (2-6%). Discussion and Conclusions. Smoking levels reported by Indigenous Australians in this study, when sharing tobacco was considered, closely reflected quantities of tobacco sold in community stores.

Cousijn J; Goudriaan AE; Wiers RW. Reaching out towards cannabis: Approach-bias in heavy cannabis users predicts changes in cannabis use. Addiction 106(9): 1667-1674, 2011. (54 refs.)

Aims Repeated drug exposure can lead to an approach-bias, i.e. the relatively automatically triggered tendencies to approach rather that avoid drug-related stimuli. Our main aim was to study this approach-bias in heavy cannabis users with the newly developed cannabis Approach Avoidance Task (cannabis-AAT) and to investigate the predictive relationship between an approach-bias for cannabis-related materials and levels of cannabis use, craving, and the course of cannabis use. Design, settings and participants Cross-sectional assessment and six-month follow-up in 32 heavy cannabis users and 39 non-using controls. Measurements Approach and avoidance action-tendencies towards cannabis and neutral images were assessed with the cannabis AAT. During the AAT, participants pulled or pushed a joystick in response to image orientation. To generate additional sense of approach or avoidance, pulling the joystick increased picture size while pushing decreased it. Craving was measured pre- and post-test with the multi-factorial Marijuana Craving Questionnaire (MCQ). Cannabis use frequencies and levels of dependence were measured at baseline and after a six-month follow-up. Findings Heavy cannabis users demonstrated an approach-bias for cannabis images, as compared to controls. The approach-bias predicted changes in cannabis use at six-month follow-up. The pre-test MCQ emotionality and expectancy factor were associated negatively with the approach-bias. No effects were found on levels of cannabis dependence. Conclusions: Heavy cannabis users with a strong approach-bias for cannabis are more likely to increase their cannabis use. This approach-bias could be used as a predictor of the course of cannabis use to identify individuals at risk from increasing cannabis use.

Das S; Ghosh M; Sarkar M; Joardar S; Chatterjee R; Chatterjee S. Adolescents speak: Why do we smoke? Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 57(6): 476-480, 2011. (26 refs.)

Objectives: To assess the role of different factors that are associated with initiation and continuation of adolescent smoking. Materials and methods: A total of 2535 students (1465 males and 1070 females) between the age groups of 14 and 19 years were selected from four schools and two colleges of the city by two-stage cluster sampling design for this cross-sectional study. Results: The prevalence of cigarette smoking was 21.58%. Smoking was found to be considerably influenced with having seen best friend, father, sibling and favorite movie star smoke and also with receiving pocket money. Conclusion: Experimentation of substance use, motivated by family members, peer groups and the surrounding environment is common among adolescents and starts early in life. Therefore, it is necessary to come up with health promotion programs directed toward students which encourage attitude shaping among them toward self-confidence and healthy life style.

Doran N; Schweizer CA; Myers MG. Do expectancies for reinforcement from smoking change after smoking initiation? Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 25(1): 101-107, 2011. (60 refs.)

Expectancies are important predictors of smoking behavior. Recent research suggests that expectancies are not stable and vary across internal and external states and levels of cigarette consumption. Expectancies may also vary between individuals as a function of temperamental characteristics such as behavioral undercontrol (BU). Although pre-initiation expectancies have been linked to subsequent smoking behaviors, no study has assessed the effect of smoking initiation on expectancies. The present study was designed to test the hypotheses that both positive (PRE) and negative (NRE) reinforcement expectancies would increase following initiation, and that these changes would be moderated by BU. College students were interviewed 12-15 months apart. Those who initiated smoking between assessments (n = 69) were included in the present study. Linear mixed models showed a significant increase in PRE but not NRE from pre- to postinitiation. The relationship between NRE and time was moderated by BU, such that higher BU was associated with significantly larger post-initiation increases in NRE. Findings suggest that PRE and NRE change significantly following experience with smoking. Furthermore, undercontrolled, impulsive individuals may be particularly vulnerable to smoking with the intention of alleviating aversive states.

Duka T; Crombag HS; Stephens DN. Experimental medicine in drug addiction: Towards behavioral, cognitive and neurobiological biomarkers. (review). Journal of Psychopharmacology 25(9): 1235-1255, 2011. (204 refs.)

Several theoretical frameworks have been developed to understand putative processes and mechanisms involved in addiction. Whilst these 'theories of addiction' disagree about importance and/or nature of a number of key psychological processes (e.g. the necessity of craving and/or the involvement of drug-value representations), a number of commonalities exist. For instance, it is widely accepted that Pavlovian associations between cues and environmental contexts and the drug effects acquired over the course of addiction play a critical role, especially in relapse vulnerability in detoxified addicts. Additionally, all theories of addiction (explicitly or implicitly) propose that chronic drug exposure produces persistent neuroplastic changes in neurobiological circuitries underlying critical emotional, cognitive and motivational processes, although disagreement exists as to the precise nature of these neurobiological changes and/or their psychological consequences. The present review, rather than limiting itself to any particular theoretical stance, considers various candidate psychological, neurobiological and/or behavioral processes in addiction and outlines conceptual and procedural approaches for the experimental medicine laboratory. The review discusses (1) extinction, renewal and (re)consolidation of learned associations between cues and drugs, (2) the drug reward value, (3) motivational states contributing to drug seeking and (4) reflective (top-down) and sensory (bottom-up) driven decision-making. In evaluating these psychological and/or behavioral processes and their relationship to addiction we make reference to putative underlying brain structures identified by basic animal studies and/or imaging studies with humans.

Field M; Hogarth L; Bleasdale D; Wright P; Fernie G; Christiansen P. Alcohol expectancy moderates attentional bias for alcohol cues in light drinkers. Addiction 106(6): 1097- 1103, 2011. (39 refs.)

Aims: Theoretical models suggest that attentional bias for alcohol-related cues develops because cues signal the availability of alcohol, and the expectancy elicited by alcohol cues is responsible for the maintenance of attentional bias among regular drinkers. We investigated the moderating role of alcohol expectancy on attentional bias for alcohol-related cues. Design:: Within-subjects experimental design. Setting: Psychology laboratories. Participants: Adult social drinkers (n = 58). Measurements: On a trial-by-trial basis, participants were informed of the probability (100%, 50%, 0%) that they would receive beer at the end of the trial before their eye movements towards alcohol-related and control cues were measured. Findings: Heavy social drinkers showed an attentional bias for alcohol-related cues regardless of alcohol expectancy. However, in light social drinkers, attentional bias was only seen on 100% probability trials, i.e. when alcohol was expected imminently. Conclusions: Attentional bias for alcohol-related cues is sensitive to the current expectancy of receiving alcohol in light social drinkers, but it occurs independently of the current level of alcohol expectancy in heavy drinkers.

Hasking P; Lyvers M; Carlopio C. The relationship between coping strategies, alcohol expectancies, drinking motives and drinking behaviour. Addictive Behaviors 36(5): 479-487, 2011. (50 refs.)

Numerous models have been proposed in an attempt to explain both alcohol use and alcohol abuse. Many of these models propose that drinking behaviour is the result of a complex interplay of cognitive and behavioural variables including coping strategies, alcohol expectancies and motives for drinking. However few studies have explored how these elements may work together to predict drinking. The current study proposed a mediational model of alcohol use in which coping strategies are related to alcohol expectancies, which in turn are related to drinking motives. Drinking motives were then viewed as proximal predictors of drinking behaviour. There were 454 participants (55.78% female) who completed self-report questionnaires assessing the above constructs. Approximately half the participants completed the questionnaires online, while the others completed the paper and pencil versions of the same measures. Findings generally supported the hypothesised model. The relationship between avoidant coping and drinking behaviour was mediated by alcohol expectancies of increased confidence and tension reduction, which in turn were related to drinking motives. As expected, drinking motives were positively related to drinking behaviour. Negative expectancies were also directly related to drinking behaviour. The results are discussed in light of cognitive models of drinking, and implications for prevention and early intervention of alcohol-use problems.

Hayaki J; Herman DS; Hagerty CE; de Dios MA; Anderson BJ; Stein MD. Expectancies and self-efficacy mediate the effects of impulsivity on marijuana use outcomes: An application of the acquired preparedness model. Addictive Behaviors 36(4): 389-396, 2011. (44 refs.)

This study tests the acquired preparedness model (APM) to explain associations among trait impulsivity, social learning principles, and marijuana use outcomes in a community sample of female marijuana users. The APM states that individuals with high-risk dispositions are more likely to acquire certain types of learning that, in turn, instigate problematic substance use behaviors. In this study, three domains of psychosocial learning were tested: positive and negative marijuana use expectancies, and marijuana refusal self-efficacy. Participants were 332 community-recruited women aged 18-24 enrolled in a study of motivational interviewing for marijuana use reduction. The present analysis is based on participant self-reports of their impulsivity, marijuana use expectancies, marijuana refusal self-efficacy, marijuana use frequency, marijuana use-related problems, and marijuana dependence. In this sample, impulsivity was significantly associated with marijuana use frequency, marijuana-related problems, and marijuana dependence. Results also indicate that the effect of impulsivity on all three marijuana outcomes was fully mediated by the three principles of psychosocial learning tested in the model, namely, positive and negative marijuana expectancies, and marijuana refusal self-efficacy. These findings lend support to the APM as it relates to marijuana use. In particular, they extend the applicability of the theory to include marijuana refusal self-efficacy, suggesting that, among high-impulsives, those who lack appropriate strategies to resist the temptation to use marijuana are more likely to exhibit more frequent marijuana use and use-related negative consequences.

Hendricks PS; Wood SB; Baker MR; Delucchi KL; Hall SM. The Smoking Abstinence Questionnaire: Measurement of smokers' abstinence-related expectancies. Addiction 106(4): 716-728, 2011. (46 refs.)

PU Pacini Editore To develop and validate a measure of smokers' expectancies for the abstinence process upon quitting smoking: the Smoking Abstinence Questionnaire (SAQ). Design: Principal component analysis and other psychometric analyses of self-report data. Setting: San Francisco, California. Participants: A total of 507 adult smokers of at least 10 cigarettes per day diverse in gender, sexual orientation and ethnoracial status. Measurements: The primary measure was a draft version of the SAQ. Additional measures assessed a variety of other smoking-related constructs. Findings: Analyses yielded 10 scales of the SAQ: Withdrawal, Social Improvement/Non-smoker Identity, Adverse Outcomes, Treatment Effectiveness, Common Reasons, Barriers to Treatment, Social Support, Optimistic Outcomes, Coffee Use and Weight Gain. The SAQ scales demonstrated internal consistencies ranging from 0.62 to 0.85 and were associated with tobacco dependence, motivation to quit, abstinence self-efficacy, withdrawal symptoms, dietary restraint, shape and weight concern and tobacco use expectancies. The SAQ predicted smoking-related constructs above and beyond tobacco use expectancies, suggesting that abstinence-related expectancies and tobacco use expectancies are distinct from one another. Conclusions: A newly developed questionnaire, the Smoking Abstinence Questionnaire, appears to capture reliably smokers' expectancies for abstinence (Withdrawal, Social Improvement/Non-smoker Identity, Adverse Outcomes, Common Reasons, Optimistic Outcomes, Coffee Use, and Weight Gain) and expectancies related to the success of a quit attempt (Treatment Effectiveness, Barriers to Treatment and Social Support). It remains to be seen how far any of these expectancies predict attempts to quit, withdrawal, treatment utilization and response and quitting success above and beyond existing measures.

Ilgen MA; Roeder KM; Webster L; Mowbray OP; Perron BE; Chermack ST et al. Measuring pain medication expectancies in adults treated for substance use disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 115(1-2): 51- 56, 2011. (42 refs.)

Background: The U.S. prevalence of misuse of prescription opioid analgesics has increased substantially over the past decade but research on the factors influencing misuse of these medications remains preliminary. In the literature on alcohol, marijuana and stimulants, substance-related expectancies have been found to predict level of substance use. A similar line of research is needed to better understand reasons for misusing pain medications. Methods: This study utilized a sample of adults presenting to a large residential addictions treatment program (N = 351). Participants were administered a new instrument, the Pain Medication Expectancy Questionnaire (PMEQ) as well as questions about current alcohol, illegal drug and pain medication misuse. Exploratory factor analysis was used to determine underlying factors of the PMEQ. Results: Results of the factor analysis supported a three-factor solution focusing on pleasure/social enhancement, pain reduction and negative experience reduction. In general, greater perceived expectancy of the positive effects of Prescription Opiate Analgesics (POAs) in all three domains were correlated with greater frequency of substance use and poorer mental health functioning. Expectancies directly related to the pain-reducing properties of POAs were also related to greater pain and poorer physical functioning. Conclusions: This new measure of pain medication expectancies had sound psychometric properties and the resulting factors were associated with other clinically important aspects of patient functioning. The results highlight the need to assess for and address perceptions related to pain medication use in patients presenting to addictions treatment.

Immonen S; Valvanne J; Pitkala KH. Older adults' own reasoning for their alcohol consumption. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 26(11): 1169-1176, 2011. (51 refs.)

Objective: The aim of the study was to investigate what the older adults themselves consider to be the reasons for their alcohol consumption. Methods: The data were collected with a postal questionnaire from a random sample of 2100 elderly people (>= 65 years) living in the medium-sized city of Espoo, Finland. The response rate was 71.6% from the community-dwelling sample. Altogether 868 persons responded that they use alcohol. Of them, 831 gave reasons for their drinking. We defined "at-risk users'' as consuming >7 drinks per week, or >= 5 drinks on a typical drinking day, or using >= 3 drinks several times per week. Results: Main reasons given for alcohol consumption were "having fun or celebration'' (58.7%), "for social reasons'' (54.2%), "using alcohol for medicinal purposes'' (20.1%), and "with meals'' (13.8%). Younger age groups reported more often than the older age groups that they use alcohol for "having fun or celebration'' and "for social reasons.'' The older age groups used more often "alcohol for medicinal purposes''. Men used alcohol more often than women "as pastime'' or "as sauna drink''. Those defined as "at-risk users'' reported using alcohol because of "meaningless life,'' for "relieving depression,'' "relieving anxiety,'' and "relieving loneliness.'' Conclusions: Older adults have diverse alcohol consumption habits like people in other age groups. The oldest olds reported that they use alcohol for medicinal purposes. The "at-risk users'' admit they use alcohol because of meaningless life, and relieving depression, anxiety, and loneliness.

Isaak MI; Perkins DR; Labatut TR. Disregulated alcohol-related behavior among college drinkers: Associations with protective behaviors, personality, and drinking motives. Journal of American College Health 59(4): 282-288, 2011. (25 refs.)

Objective: This study investigated the psychometric properties of the Disregulated Alcohol-Related Behaviors Inventory (DARBI), a measure of harmful alcohol-related behavior, and the relationship between protective behavior use and scores on the DARBI and several other measures. Participants: Participants were 281 undergraduate volunteers (60% female) enrolled in introductory psychology sections in Summer and Fall 2007. Methods: Participants completed the DARBI along with paper-and-pencil self-report measures of broad personality domains, trait resilience, protective behavior use, and drinking motivations and consequences. Results: The DARBI's internal consistency was good (alpha = .85). DARBI scores correlated negatively with conscientiousness scores but positively with neuroticism, the Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST), Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index (RAPI), and positive-reinforcement motives scores. The self-reported use of protective behaviors related negatively to DARBI, MAST, RAPI, and enhancement motives scores. Protective behavior use was unrelated to broad personality domains. Conclusions: The DARBI may prove a useful tool in campus interventions. Further research should determine the dispositional and situational determinants of protective behavior use.

Kippin TE. Does drug mis-instrumentalization lead to drug abuse? (editorial). Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34(6): 316-317, 2011. (0 refs.)

Understanding the perceived benefits of using drugs to achieve specific mental states will provide novel insights into the reasons individuals seek to use drugs. However, the precision of attempts to instrumentalize drugs is unclear both across drugs and individuals. Moreover, mis-instrumentalization, defined as discrepancies between such endpoints, may have relevance to understanding the relation among use, abuse, and addiction.

Kovac VB; Rise J. The role of desire in the prediction of intention: The case of smoking behavior. Swiss Journal of Psychology 70(3): 141-148, 2011. (34 refs.)

This paper is based on the notion that desire represents an important motivational aspect of the decision-making process. Thus, we examined the hypotheses that desire (1) predicts behavioral intentions and (2) mediates the effects of theory of planned behavior (TPB) components and past behavior on an individual's intention to quit smoking. The analysis is based on three separate conditions in which the intention to quit smoking during the next 1, 4, or 6 months, respectively, was measured; the three conditions contained identical variables. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis show that there are sufficient grounds for including desire as an additional predictor in the TPB model. The results also show that desire mediates the effects of attitudes, norms, and past behavior on intention. However, the mediating role of desire was not obtained for the relationship between PBC and intention. Theoretical implications and recommendations for future research are suggested.

Kristjansson SD; Pergadia ML; Agrawal A; Lessov-Schlaggar CN; McCarthy DM; Piasecki TM et al. Smoking outcome expectancies in young adult female smokers: Individual differences and associations with nicotine dependence in a genetically informative sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 116(1-3): 37-44, 2011. (47 refs.)

Outcome expectancy is a central construct in models of addiction. Several outcome expectancies associated with smoking cigarettes have been identified, and studies suggest that individual differences in smoking expectancies are related to important aspects of tobacco use, including levels of smoking, nicotine dependence and smoking cessation. In the present study, we used a novel analytic method, exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), to quantify smoking expectancies from a subset of items adapted from the Smoking Consequences Questionnaire (SCQ; Brandon and Baker, 1991) and SCQ-Adult (Copeland et al., 1995). In our sample of 1262 monozygotic and dizygotic young adult, female twins who were regular smokers, we quantified six smoking expectancy factors similar to those reported in previous studies. These included Negative Affect Reduction, Boredom Reduction, Weight Control, Taste Manipulation, Craving/Addiction and Stimulation-state Enhancement. We used genetic model-fitting to examine the extent to which individual differences in the expectancies were influenced by latent genetic, shared environmental and non-shared environmental factors. We also examined the validity of the expectancy factors by examining their associations with nicotine dependence (ND) before and after adjusting for comorbid diagnoses of drug dependence and alcohol use disorder. Results of the validity analysis indicated that all of the expectancies were associated with ND after covariate adjustment. Although we lacked the statistical power to distinguish between genetic and shared environmental sources of variance, our results suggest that smoking outcome expectancies aggregate in families, but the majority of variance in these expectancies is due to environmental factors specific to the individual.

Labbe AK; Maisto SA. Alcohol expectancy challenges for college students: A narrative review. (review). Clinical Psychology Review 31(4): 673- 683, 2011. (63 refs.)

Heavy alcohol use among college students has become a substantial health concern. With national survey data indicating that 40% of college students report consuming five or more alcoholic drinks at least monthly (Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2009), prevention and intervention programs are needed to address this problem. The Task Force on College Drinking, commissioned by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), designated alcohol expectancy challenges (ECs) as a recommended treatment strategy to reduce alcohol use among college students (NIAAA, 2002). This paper is a systematic critical review of the studies that have been conducted to assess for the efficacy of ECs among college students with a focus on changes in expectancies and alcohol consumption, and possible differences in efficacy for men and women. The review revealed that ECs were most efficacious when administered to male-only groups of participants; while ECs for female-only and mixed-gender groups demonstrated less consistent results. The implications of the findings of this critical review for the direction of future research are discussed.

Lee CM; Maggs JL; Neighbors C; Patrick ME. Positive and negative alcohol-related consequences: Associations with past drinking. Journal of Adolescence 34(1): 87-94, 2011. (55 refs.)

While recent attention suggests that positive and negative alcohol-related expectancies are important determinants of alcohol use, less is known about what types of consequences young people report actually experiencing when drinking alcohol. The present study (N = 742, 54% women) examined positive (Fun/Social, Relaxation/Coping, Positive Image) and negative (Physical, Behavioral, Driving) consequences of alcohol use among individuals with prior drinking histories who completed surveys the summer before their first year at university. Fun/Social consequences were reported more frequently than any negative consequences. Alcohol consequences were associated with drinking behaviors. In particular, positive Fun/Social consequences and negative Physical and Driving-related consequences were related to alcohol frequency, alcohol quantity, and frequency of heavy episodic drinking. Positive consequences were at least as strongly associated with drinking as were negative consequences. The possible role of Fun/Social consequences in the escalation and maintenance of high-risk drinking is discussed.

Lee KH; Bowen S; An-Fu B. Psychosocial outcomes of mindfulness-based relapse prevention in incarcerated substance abusers in Taiwan: A preliminary study. Journal of Substance Use 16(6): 476-483, 2011. (29 refs.)

Introduction: The current study evaluated effects of an adapted version of Mindfulness-Based Relapse Prevention (MBRP) on several psychosocial indices in a sample of incarcerated adult males with substance use disorders. Method: This study used a 2 (baseline vs post-session) x 2 (MBRP vs. treatment-as-usual (TAU) mixed design. Twenty-four incarcerated individuals with a history of substance abuse were randomly assigned to either MBRP or TAU. At pre- and post-session assessment points, participants completed the Drug Use Identification Disorders Test- Extended (DUDIT-E), the Drug Avoidance Self-Efficacy Scale (DASE) and positive/negative outcome expectancies (Ep/En). The Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) was completed in each weekly session of MBRP. MANOVA and repeated measures ANOVA examined changes between and within subjects, with the significant level set at 0.05. Results: No between-group differences were found on positive outcome expectancies or self-efficacy. Differences BDI-II scores among MBRP participants showed a downward trend over time. A Group x Time effect emerged for negative outcome expectancies, with significant differences between groups at post-course assessment. Conclusions: Results from this randomized trial suggest pre- to post-intervention trend-level effects of MBRP on depression, and significant group differences over time and at post-course on negative outcome expectancies, with the MBRP group reporting increases.

Lin YL; Lin HW. A study on the goal value for massively multiplayer online role-playing games players. Computers In Human Behavior 27(6): 2153-2160, 2011. (53 refs.)

This study examines the goal of value sought by players of the massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs). We drew on the Means-end Chains (MECs) model frequently used in marketing as a theoretical basis. Soft laddering method was also adopted as a tool for in-depth interviews. Content analysis was used to analyze the "Attributes-Consequences-Values" for MMORPGs players, then converted into a hierarchical value map (HVM). The study found that role-playing, interface design, multiplayer gaming, independent play, popularity and virtual pets were the order of game attributes users took into consideration when playing MMORPGs. The consequences benefits for the users were, in order, enhanced interaction, more fun, enhanced efficiency, fantasy fulfillment, winning, novelty, more insurance, increased wealth and stress relief. The value targets sought by players were concluded to be fun and enjoyment in life, sense of accomplishment, warm relationships with others, sense of belonging and security in order of importance.

Linden DJ. The Compass Of Pleasure. How Our Brains Make Fatty Foods, Orgasm, Exercise, Marijuana, Generosity, Vodka, Learning, and Gambling Feel So Good. New York: Viking Press, 2011

By merging an evolutionary perspective with research in neuroscience, this book addresses provocative questions about the relationship between pleasure and addiction. It also explores the broader implications of the nexus of the two.�The author suggests that an understanding of the biological basis of pleasure leads us to reconsidering the moral and legal aspects of addiction to drugs, food, sex, and gambling and the industries that manipulate these pleasures. The book is noteworthy for its ability to explain complex scientific concepts for the nonspecialist. He focuses most of his attention on the role played by the small portion of our gray matter known as the medial forebrain pleasure circuit and demonstrates how both behavior and chemistry can activate its neurons. He also introduces the somewhat counterintuitive conclusion that addiction is often associated with decreased pleasure.

Littlefield AK; Agrawal A; Ellingson JM; Kristjansson S; Madden PAF; Bucholz KK et al. Does variance in drinking motives explain the genetic overlap between personality and alcohol use disorder symptoms? A twin study of young women. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 35(12): 2242-2250, 2011. (0 refs.)

Background: Genetic risk for alcohol dependence has been shown to overlap with genetic factors contributing to variation in dimensions of personality. Although drinking motives have been posited as important mediators of the alcoholpersonality relation, the extent to which the genetic covariance between alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms (i.e., abuse and dependence criteria) and personality is explained by genetic factors contributing to variation in drinking motives remains unclear. Methods: Using data from 2,904 young adult female twins, the phenotypic and genetic associations between personality dimensions (constraint [measured by the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire; Tellegen A, 1982 unpublished data], conscientiousness, neuroticism, and agreeableness [measured by the NEO-PI; Costa and McCrae, 1985]), internal drinking motives (enhancement and coping motives [measured by the Drinking Motive Questionnaire; Cooper, 1994]), and AUD symptoms were tested. Results: Significant genetic associations were found between all personality measures and AUD symptoms. Coping motives showed significant genetic overlap with AUD symptoms and most personality measures, whereas enhancement motives were not significantly heritable. Adjusting for coping motives, genetic correlations between AUD symptoms and traits of neuroticism and agreeableness were no longer statistically significant. Conclusions: Findings suggest that genetic variation in drinking to cope might account for a considerable proportion of the genetic covariance between specific personality dimensions and AUD symptoms.

Littlefield AK; Verges A; McCarthy DM; Sher KJ. Interactions between self-reported alcohol outcome expectancies and cognitive functioning in the prediction of alcohol use and associated problems: A further examination. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 25(3): 542-546, 2011. (39 refs.)

A recent debate regarding the theoretical distinction between explicit and implicit cognitive processes relevant to alcohol-related behaviors was strongly shaped by empirical findings from dual-process models (Moss & Albery, 2009; Wiers & Stacy, 2010; Moss & Albery, 2010). Specifically, as part of a broader discussion, Wiers & Stacy (2010) contended that alcohol-related behaviors are better predicted by self-reported alcohol expectancies for individuals with good executive control and verbal abilities relative to those without such abilities. The purpose of the current paper is to further test whether self-reported alcohol outcome expectancies are moderated by measures of cognitive functioning. Using multiple indices of alcohol use, alcohol-related consequences, self-reported alcohol outcome expectancies, and cognitive functioning, both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses were conducted in a prospective sample of 489 individuals at varying risk for alcohol use disorders. Results from a series of regression analyses testing interactions between self-reported alcohol expectancies and cognitive functioning showed minimal support for the hypothesized pattern discussed by Wiers and Stacy, 2010 regarding self-reported alcohol outcome expectancies. The overall rates of significance were consistent with Type I error rates and a substantial proportion of the significant interactions were inconsistent with previous findings. Thus, the conclusion that cognitive measures consistently moderate the relation between self-reported alcohol expectancies and alcohol use and outcomes should be tempered.

Marques-Vidal P; Melich-Cerveira J; Paccaud F; Waeber G; Vollenweider P; Cornuz J. High expectation in non-evidence-based smoking cessation interventions among smokers: The Colaus study. Preventive Medicine 52(3-4): 258-261, 2011. (13 refs.)

Objective. To assess the preferred methods to quit smoking among current smokers. Method. Cross-sectional, population-based study conducted in Lausanne between 2003 and 2006 including 988 current smokers. Preference was assessed by questionnaire. Evidence-based (EB) methods were nicotine replacement, bupropion, physician or group consultations; non-EB-based methods were acupuncture, hypnosis and autogenic training. Results. EB methods were frequently (physician consultation: 48%, 95% confidence interval (45-51); nicotine replacement therapy: 35% (32-38)) or rarely (bupropion and group consultations: 13% (11-15)) preferred by the participants. Non-EB methods were preferred by a third (acupuncture: 33% (30-36)), a quarter (hypnosis: 26% (23-29)) or a seventh (autogenic training: 13% (11-15)) of responders. On multivariate analysis, women preferred both EB and non-EB methods more frequently than men (odds ratio and 95% confidence interval: 1.46(1.10-1.93) and 226 (1.72-2.96) for any EB and non-EB method, respectively). Preference for non-EB methods was higher among highly educated participants, while no such relationship was found for EB methods. Discussion. Many smokers are unaware of the full variety of methods to quit smoking. Better information regarding these methods is necessary.

McDonald JL; Meyer TD. Self-report reasons for alcohol use in bipolar disorders: Why drink despite the potential risks? Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy 18(5): 418-425, 2011. (36 refs.)

High rates of alcohol use and misuse are commonly reported for bipolar disorder (BD) and in many cases, these impact detrimentally on the course and treatment of the disorder. Therefore, knowing the reasons individuals with a diagnosis of BD give for drinking alcohol is essential for understanding this association and for treatment. This paper aimed to systematically review the literature relating to self-reported reasons and motives for alcohol use in BD. By using internet-based search engines such as PsycINFO and Medline, six relevant studies were identified and then quality-assessed using a set of criteria specifically developed for this review. Overall, the findings supported the intuitive notion that individuals with a diagnosis of BD use alcohol to relieve distressing mood states. However, there was evidence of other mood-related and mood-unrelated reasons-e.g., drinking to enhance euphoric mood or to be sociable. These findings are discussed in relation to the self-medication hypothesis and cognitive motivational models of alcohol use developed in the general population. The quality assessment also revealed several limitations including diagnostically heterogeneous samples and inconsistencies in measurement between studies, and recommendations for addressing these limitations are given. Key Practitioner Message: Although implicitly alcohol use in patients with bipolar disorders is often been interpreted as evidence of a co-morbid alcohol use disorder or an inadequate coping pattern, it is essential to test this belief as a clinician. An adequate formulation has to consider that the motives to drink alcohol vary between patients with bipolar disorders and might also vary between mood states.

McKay MT; Cole JC; Sumnall H. Teenage thinking on teenage drinking: 15- to 16-year olds' experiences of alcohol in Northern Ireland. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 18(5): 323-332, 2011. (41 refs.)

Focus groups were conducted with 15- to 16-year olds in Northern Ireland looking at reasons for alcohol consumption and reflections on specific attitudes towards alcohol and behaviours resulting from alcohol use. Participants reported greater concern with 'being caught' drinking by parents than with any negative short- or long-term health impact from alcohol use. The results would also suggest that once initiated, young people are unlikely to stop drinking and therefore are in need of harm reduction advice and skills. Participants reported a desire to engage meaningfully with school teachers and parents concerning their use of alcohol; however, fear of being labelled as problematic by teachers and fear of disappointing their parents means that they would be more likely to keep their drinking secretive. Participants repeatedly reported that intoxication (or consumption of alcohol, more broadly) could be used to excuse both risky and illegal behaviours. Interventions with young drinkers might look to address some of the harms and attitudes discussed.

McKay MT; Sumnall H; Goudie AJ; Field M; Cole JC. What differentiates adolescent problematic drinkers from their peers? Results. from a cross-sectional study in Northern Irish school children. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 18(3): 187-199, 2011. (96 refs.)

Aim: To investigate whether or not a range of factors were associated with problematic drinking, as assessed using the Adolescent Alcohol Involvement Scale (AAIS) in a sample of 11-16-year olds in Northern Ireland. Methods: The study used a cross-sectional experimental design. Post-primary schools in the Eastern Health Board Area of Northern Ireland were targeted and 1137 participants were recruited of whom 1057 (93%%) successfully completed a battery of questionnaires. These measured parent and peer attachment, self-efficacy, self-esteem, academic motivation, alcohol outcome expectancies, parental rules on alcohol use and alcohol use (if any). Findings: Multinomial logistic regression revealed that more problematic alcohol use was predicted by being in higher school year, higher reported positive outcome expectancies and lower negative outcome expectancies, less strict and/or clear parental rules on alcohol consumption, lower academic self-efficacy, higher social self-efficacy and less trust of parents. Conclusions: Preventative and/or harm reduction initiatives with this age group need to be aware of these as factors which differentiate adolescent drinkers. In particular, the findings suggest the potential need for age and gender specific interventions which challenge social norms about alcohol consumption, and the potential viability of family/school relationship-building interventions.

Meissner K; Kohls N; Colloca L. Introduction to placebo effects in medicine: Mechanisms and clinical implications. Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society. B: Biological Sciences 366(1572): 1783- 1789, 2011. (64 refs.)

The field of placebo research has made considerable progress in the last years and it has become a major focus of interest. We know now that the placebo effect is a real neurobiological phenomenon and that the brain's 'inner pharmacy' is a critical determinant for the occurrence of psychobiological and behavioural changes relevant to healing processes and well-being. However, harnessing the advantages of placebo effects in healthcare is still a challenge. The first part of the theme issue summarizes and discusses the various kinds of placebo mechanisms across medical fields, thereby not only focusing on two main explanatory models - expectation and conditioning theory - but also taking into account empathy and social learning, emotion and motivation, spirituality and the healing ritual. The second part of the issue focuses on questions related to transferring knowledge from placebo research into clinical practice and discusses implications for the design and interpretation of clinical trials, for the therapeutic settings in daily patient care, and for future translational placebo research.

Mickens L; Greenberg J; Ameringer KJ; Brightman M; Sun P; Leventhal AM. Associations between depressive symptom dimensions and smoking dependence motives. Evaluation & the Health Professions 34(1): 81-102, 2011. (41 refs.)

Depressive symptoms are heterogeneous and can be parsed into four subdimensions (i.e., positive affect [PA], negative affect [NA], somatic features [SF], and interpersonal problems [IP]) that may have unique associations with the motivation to smoke. This study explored associations between depressive symptom dimensions and 13 theoretically distinct domains of smoking dependence motivation in current cigarette smokers (N = 212; 53% female, mean [M] age = 24 years). Results demonstrated substantial variability in the pattern of motivational correlates across depressive dimensions. Low PA exhibited the narrowest motivational profile, associating with only the tendency to prioritize smoking over other reinforcers. NA demonstrated a broader profile, associating with smoking for affect regulation and cognitive enhancement as well as prioritizing smoking. SF associated with prioritizing smoking and smoking because of cue exposure, craving, and weight control. IP demonstrated the broadest profile, associating with 7 of 13 motivational domains. These findings may assist the tailoring cessation interventions for smokers with depressive symptoms.

Morgenstern M; Isensee B; Sargent JD; Hanewinkel R. Attitudes as mediators of the longitudinal association between alcohol advertising and youth drinking. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 165(7): 610-616, 2011. (26 refs.)

Objective: To test the hypothesis that changes in alcohol-related attitudes and expectancies mediate the effect of alcohol advertising on youth drinking. Design: Longitudinal survey with a 9-month interval. Setting: Twenty-nine public schools in 3 German states. Participants: A total of 2130 sixth-to eighth-grade students (age range, 11-17 years; mean, 12.2 years) who were nondrinkers at baseline. Main Exposures: Exposure to alcohol and nonalcohol advertising was measured at baseline with masked images of 17 commercial advertisements with all brand information digitally removed; students indicated contact frequency and brand names. Outcome Measures: Positive attitudes toward alcohol, current alcohol use, lifetime binge drinking. Results: A total of 581 of the students (28%) started to drink alcohol during the observation period. Alcohol use initiation was positively related to baseline alcohol advertisement exposure. This effect of alcohol advertisement exposure on alcohol use was partially mediated by a change in alcohol-related attitudes, which explained about 35% of the total effect after controlling for baseline covariates and exposure to other advertising contents. The analysis revealed similar results for binge-drinking initiation. Conclusion: More favorable attitudes about alcohol may be one path through which alcohol advertising exerts behavioral influence.

Mullens AB; Young RMCD; Dunne MP; Norton G. The Drinking Expectancy Questionnaire for men who have sex with men (DEQ-MSM): A measure of substance-related beliefs. Drug and Alcohol Review 30(4): 372-380, 2011. (46 refs.)

Introduction and Aims. Alcohol expectancies are associated with drinking behaviour and post-drinking use thoughts, feelings and behaviours. The expectancies held by specific cultural or sub-cultural groups have rarely been investigated. This research maps expectancies specific to gay and other men who have sex with men (MSM) and their relationship with substance use. This study describes the specific development of a measure of such beliefs for alcohol, the Drinking Expectancy Questionnaire for Men who have Sex with Men (DEQ-MSM). Design and Methods. Items selected through a focus group and interviews were piloted on 220 self-identified gay or other MSM via an online questionnaire. Results. Factor analysis revealed three distinct substance reinforcement domains ('Cognitive impairment', 'Sexual activity' and 'Social and emotional facilitation'). These factors were associated with consumption patterns of alcohol, and in a crucial test of discriminant validity were not associated with the consumption of cannabis or stimulants. Similarities and differences with existing measures will also be discussed. Discussion and Conclusions. The DEQ-MSM represents a reliable and valid measure of outcome expectancies, related to alcohol use among MSM, and represents an important advance as no known existing alcohol expectancy measure, to date, has been developed and/or normed for use among this group. Future applications of the DEQ-MSM in health promotion, clinical settings and research may contribute to reducing harm associated with alcohol use among MSM, including the development of alcohol use among young gay men.

Northcote J. Young adults' decision making surrounding heavy drinking: A multi-staged model of planned behaviour. Social Science & Medicine 72(12): 2020-2025, 2011. (30 refs.)

This paper examines the real life contexts in which decisions surrounding heavy drinking are made by young adults (that is, on occasions when five or more alcoholic drinks are consumed within a few hours). It presents a conceptual model that views such decision making as a multi-faceted and multi-staged process. The mixed method study draws on purposive data gathered through direct observation of eight social networks consisting of 81 young adults aged between 18 and 25 years in Perth, Western Australia, including in-depth interviews with 31 participants. Qualitative and some basic quantitative data were gathered using participant observation and in-depth interviews undertaken over an eighteen month period. Participants explained their decision to engage in heavy drinking as based on a variety of factors. These elements relate to socio-cultural norms and expectancies that are best explained by the theory of planned behaviour. A framework is proposed that characterises heavy drinking as taking place in a multi-staged manner, with young adults having: 1. A generalised orientation to the value of heavy drinking shaped by wider influences and norms; 2. A short-term orientation shaped by situational factors that determines drinking intentions for specific events; and 3. An evaluative orientation shaped by moderating factors. The value of qualitative studies of decision making in real life contexts is advanced to complement the mostly quantitative research that dominates research on alcohol decision making.

Ornelas IJ; Eng E; Perreira KM. Perceived barriers to opportunity and their relation to substance use among Latino immigrant men. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 34(3): 182- 191, 2011. (71 refs.)

Theory and empirical evidence suggest that perceived barriers to opportunity, such as discrimination, can lead to the adoption of unhealthy behaviors. The study assessed the relationship between perceived racial/ethnic, language and legal status barriers to opportunity and substance use among Latino immigrant men in North Carolina. Logistic regression was used to test for the association between perceived barriers and odds of binge drinking in the past 30 days and cigarette smoking. In both crude and adjusted models, perceived language barriers (OR = 3.05, 95% CI: 1.78-5.25) and legal status barriers (OR = 2.25, 95% CI: 1.26-4.01) were associated with increased odds of having engaged in binge drinking. Perceived barriers to opportunity were not significantly associated with cigarette smoking. Further research is needed to better understand the effect of language and legal status barriers on health among Latino immigrants.

Ostafin BD; Brooks JJ. Drinking for relief: Negative affect increases automatic alcohol motivation in coping-motivated drinkers. Motivation and Emotion 35(3, special issue): 285-295, 2011. (80 refs.)

Although there is increasing evidence that automatic alcohol motivation plays a role in drinking behavior, little research has examined the contexts that elicit these automatic processes. This study was designed to examine whether negative affect would increase the strength of automatic alcohol-approach associations in individuals who drink to cope with negative emotion. Participants consisted of regular drinkers who were high or low in motivation to consume alcohol to cope with negative emotion. In session 1, participants completed an Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald in, J Pers Soc Psychol 74: 1464-1480, 1998) to assess automatic alcohol-approach associations. In session 2, participants were administered a personalized negative affect imagery task (Sinha in, Imagery script development procedures, version 4.1. Unpublished manuscript, Yale University School of Medicine, 2005) and completed another IAT. The results indicated that the negative affect induction increased the strength of automatic alcohol-approach associations in participants with high coping motivation but not in participants with low coping motivation. These data are the first to document that negative affect can increase the strength of automatic motivational processes related to alcohol.

Patrick ME; Schulenberg JE; O'Malley PM; Maggs JL; Kloska DD; Johnston LD et al. Age-related changes in reasons for using alcohol and marijuana from ages 18 to 30 in a national sample. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 25(2): 330-339, 2011. (43 refs.)

This study used up to seven waves of data from 32 consecutive cohorts of participants in the national longitudinal Monitoring the Future study to model changes in self-reported reasons for using alcohol and marijuana by age (18 to 30), gender, and recent substance use. The majority of stated reasons for use decreased in prevalence across young adulthood (e.g., social/recreational and coping with negative affect reasons); exceptions included age-related increases in using to relax (alcohol and marijuana), to sleep (alcohol), because it tastes good (alcohol), and to get high (marijuana). Women were more likely than men to report drinking for reasons involving distress (i.e., to get away from problems), while men were more likely than women to endorse all other reasons. Greater substance use at age 18 was associated with greater likelihood of all reasons except to experiment and to fit in. A better understanding of developmental changes in reasons for use is important for understanding normative changes in substance use behaviors and for informing intervention efforts involving underlying reasons for use.

Patrick ME; Schulenberg JE. How trajectories of reasons for alcohol use relate to trajectories of binge drinking: National panel data spanning late adolescence to early adulthood. Developmental Psychology 47(2): 311-317, 2011. (42 refs.)

Developmental changes in both alcohol use behaviors and self-reported reasons for alcohol use were investigated. Participants were surveyed every 2 years from ages 18 to 30 as part of the Monitoring the Future national study (analytic weighted sample size N = 9,308; 53% women, 40% college attenders). Latent growth models were used to examine correlations between trajectories of binge drinking and trajectories of self-reported reasons for alcohol use across young adulthood. Results revealed developmental changes in masons for use and correlations between the patterns of within-person change in frequency of binge drinking and within-person change in reasons for use. In particular, an increase in binge drinking between ages 18 and 22 was most positively correlated with slopes of using alcohol to get high and because of boredom. Continued binge drinking between ages 22 and 30 was most strongly correlated with using alcohol to get away from problems. Almost no moderation by gender, race, college attendance, employment, or marital status was found. Binge drinking and masons for alcohol use traveled together, illustrating the ongoing and dynamic connections between changes in binge drinking and changes in reasons for use across late adolescence and early adulthood.

Pedersen SL; Treloar HR; Burton CM; McCarthy DM. Differences in implicit associations about alcohol between blacks and whites following alcohol administration. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 72(2): 270-278, 2011. (40 refs.)

Objective: Implicit cognitions about alcohol have been shown to be an important predictor of alcohol use. Relatively little research has been conducted on racial/ethnic differences in implicit cognitions or changes in implicit cognitions while intoxicated. This study examined differences between Blacks and Whites in positive and negative implicit associations about alcohol, as measured by the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and tested differences in IAT scores when participants were sober and intoxicated. Method: One hundred thirty-five young adults (46% of Black descent) participated in an alcohol-administration study, receiving a moderate dose of alcohol (0.72 g/kg alcohol for men, 0.65 g/kg for women). The IAT was administered in two sessions, one in which alcohol was administered (30 minutes after alcohol consumption) and one in which it was not, approximately 1 week apart. Results: Repeated-measures mixed-factorial analyses of variance were conducted separately for positive and negative IAT scores. Blacks held lower positive and negative implicit cognitions about alcohol compared with Whites. Positive and negative IAT scores did not change as a function of intoxication. Positive explicit expectancies and self-reported past-month drinking behavior were related to positive IAT scores. Positive and negative IAT scores were also related to acute subjective response to alcohol, and this association differed by race. Conclusions: Results extend previous studies by providing evidence for racial differences in implicit cognitions about alcohol and by showing the stability of the IAT while participants are intoxicated. Future studies are needed to determine what factors contribute to racial differences in implicit cognitions.

Prisciandaro JJ; McRae-Clark AL; Maria MMMS; Hartwell KJ; Brady KT. Psychoticism and neuroticism predict cocaine dependence and future cocaine use via different mechanisms. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 116(1-3): 80-85, 2011. (55 refs.)

Background: Personality characteristics have been associated with cocaine use. However, little is known about the mechanisms through which personality could impact drug use. The present study investigated the cross-sectional and prospective relationships between personality dimensions (i.e., impulsivity, neuroticism) and problematic cocaine use. Reactivity to a pharmacological stressor as a potential mediator of the relationship between neuroticism and future cocaine use was also examined. Methods: Participants were 53 cocaine-dependent individuals and 47 non-dependent controls. Subjects completed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) at baseline and were administered i.v. corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH; 1 mu g/kg). Cocaine use in the 30 days following CRH administration was measured. Results: Cocaine-dependent individuals had higher scores on the psychoticism (i.e., impulsivity, aggression; p = 0.02) and neuroticism (p < 0.01) scales of the EPQ than non-dependent controls. Cocaine-dependent individuals also had a greater subjective stress response to CRH than controls (p < 0.01). Cocaine-dependent individuals with elevated psychoticism used significantly more cocaine over the follow-up period (p < 0.05), whereas individuals with elevated neuroticism trended towards using cocaine more frequently over the follow-up (p = 0.07). Finally, there was a trend for an indirect effect of neuroticism on frequency of cocaine use through subjective reactivity to CRH. Conclusions: The findings extend past research on the association between personality and cocaine use, and suggest that motives for cocaine use may systematically vary across personality characteristics. Moreover, tailoring therapeutic interventions to individuals' personalities may be an area that warrants further investigation.

Racicot S; McGrath JJ; O'Loughlin J. An investigation of social and pharmacological exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke as possible predictors of perceived nicotine dependence, smoking susceptibility, and smoking expectancies among never-smoking youth. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 13(10): 926-933, 2011. (36 refs.)

Introduction: Recent studies evidenced that adolescent never-smokers exposed to secondhand tobacco smoke (SHS) endorsed nicotine dependence symptoms. Other studies showed that SHS exposure measured with biomarkers among never-smokers independently predicted withdrawal sensations and prospective smoking initiation. The aim of the present study was to replicate and extend these findings by investigating whether social and pharmacological measures of SHS exposure predicted precursors to smoking among never-smoking adolescents. Methods: Participants included 327 never-smokers aged 11-15 years attending sixth or seventh grade in French language schools in Montreal, Canada. They completed self-report questionnaires measuring their smoking status, social smoke exposure (number of smokers in their environment and number of situations where SHS exposure occurs), and precursors to smoking initiation (smoking expectancies, perceived nicotine dependence, and smoking susceptibility). Each participant provided a saliva sample from which cotinine biomarkers were derived to measure pharmacological exposure to SHS. Results: When predictors were modeled individually, number of smokers predicted perceived nicotine dependence (p <= .05), smoking susceptibility (p <= .001), and expected benefits (p <= .05), whereas number of situations predicted smoking susceptibility (p <= .01). When predictors were modeled simultaneously, number of smokers predicted perceived nicotine dependence (p <= .01), smoking susceptibility (p <= .01), and expected benefits (p <= .05). Conclusions: Social smoke exposure was a predictor for smoking precursors. Pharmacological exposure to SHS did not predict smoking precursors, which may be partly attributable to the low cotinine values observed in our sample. Suggestions for improved pharmacological measurement of SHS and implications for public health are discussed.

Rooke SE; Hine DW. A dual process account of adolescent and adult binge drinking. Addictive Behaviors 36(4): 341-346, 2011. (50 refs.)

This study adopted a dual process perspective to investigate the relative contributions of implicit and explicit cognitions to predicting binge drinking in adolescents and adults. Two hundred and seventy-two participants (136 teen-parent pairs) completed measures of alcohol memory associations (reflecting implicit cognition), expectancies about potential costs and benefits of alcohol use (reflecting explicit cognition), and self-reported binge drinking. Adolescents had stronger alcohol memory associations and perceived drinking benefits to be more probable than did adults. In turn, higher scores on the memory association and expected benefit measures were both associated with significantly higher levels of binge drinking. Moderation analyses revealed that alcohol memory associations and expected benefits of drinking were stronger predictors of binge drinking for adolescents than for adults. The findings suggest that both implicit and explicit cognitions may play important roles in alcohol use decisions, and these roles may differ for adolescents and adults.

Rousseau GS; Irons JG; Correia CJ. The reinforcing value of alcohol in a drinking to cope paradigm. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 118(1): 1-4, 2011. (38 refs.)

Background: Alcohol use is often regarded as a means of coping with sadness and distress. The present research was conducted to explore the relation between negative mood and the reinforcing value of alcohol, while clarifying the role of coping motives. Methods: Participants with a history of recent alcohol use (N = 44; 72% female) attended a laboratory session and were randomly assigned to either a negative (n = 22) or a neutral (n = 22) mood condition. A manipulation check confirmed that participants in the negative mood condition, but not the neutral mood condition, displayed a significant increase in negative affect. The multiple choice procedure (MCP) was used to measure the reinforcing value of alcohol after the mood manipulation. Results: Regression models employing the MCP crossover point as the dependent variable and mood condition (neutral or negative) and drinking to cope as predictors indicated that a model with an interaction term accounted for the most variance. Conclusions: These results suggest that the relation between mood and the reinforcing value of alcohol is moderated by drinking to cope, and help clarify the conditions under which drinking to cope may lead to negative outcomes.

Samardzic S; Bujsic G; Kozul K; Tadijan D. Drinking in adolescents - Qualitative analysis. Collegium Antropologicum 35(1): 123- 126, 2011. (15 refs.)

The aim of this paper was to explore alcohol consumption and the development of this habit in the adolescent population based on qualitative data from 59 anonymous essays written by high school students. We found that the most of adolescents had their first experiences with alcohol in the seventh or eighth grades. They reported that they usually drank alcohol to be happy, to relax, to be courageous in approaching the opposite sex, to fit into society, and to be popular. Factors affecting drinking are influence of peers, family and social attitude towards drinking, laws and enforcement of legislation. In further prevention programs, we must be able to demonstrate that "having a good" time does not mean drinking alcohol. Programs for the prevention of alcohol-related problems must begin by adolescence, including both sexes equally and can be achieved through a coordinated and intense public health effort.

Schuckit MA; Smith TL; Heron J; Hickman M; Macleod J; Lewis G et al. Testing a level of response to alcohol-based model of heavy drinking and alcohol problems in 1,905 17-year-olds. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 35(10): 1897-1904, 2011. (56 refs.)

Background: The low level of response (LR) to alcohol is one of several genetically influenced characteristics that increase the risk for heavy drinking and alcohol problems. Efforts to understand how LR operates through additional life influences have been carried out primarily in modest-sized U.S.-based samples with limited statistical power, raising questions about generalizability and about the importance of components with smaller effects. This study evaluates a full LR-based model of risk in a large sample of adolescents from the United Kingdom. Methods: Cross-sectional structural equation models were used for the approximate first half of the age 17 subjects assessed by the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, generating data on 1,905 adolescents (mean age 17.8 years, 44.2% boys). LR was measured with the Self-Rating of the Effects of Alcohol Questionnaire, outcomes were based on drinking quantities and problems, and standardized questionnaires were used to evaluate peer substance use, alcohol expectancies, and using alcohol to cope with stress. Results: In this young and large U.K. sample, a low LR related to more adverse alcohol outcomes both directly and through partial mediation by all 3 additional key variables (peer substance use, expectancies, and coping). The models were similar in boys and girls. Conclusions: These results confirm key elements of the hypothesized LR-based model in a large U.K. sample, supporting some generalizability beyond U.S. groups. They also indicate that with enough statistical power, multiple elements contribute to how LR relates to alcohol outcomes and reinforce the applicability of the model to both genders.

Scott-Sheldon LAJ; Carey MP; Vanable PA; Senn TE. Subjective life expectancy and health behaviors among STD clinic patients. American Journal of Health Behavior 34(3): 349-361, 2010. (44 refs.)

Objectives: To examine whether people who expect to live longer engage in healthier behaviors relative to people who expect to live shorter lives. Methods: Patients (994 black Americans, 373 white Americans) from a publicly funded clinic estimated their expected survival age and reported their health behaviors (alcohol, tobacco, and drug use; sexual behaviors; physical activity; and sleep). Results: Subjective life expectancy (SLE) was a significant predictor of health behavior for both men and women. Race moderated the SLE-health behavior relation but only for alcohol and tobacco use. Conclusions: Future research should explore the potential health benefits of shifting SLE from a more limited to an expansive perspective.

Sharma S; Lal R. Volatile substance misuse among street children in India: A preliminary report. Substance Use & Misuse 46(Supplement 1): 46-49, 2011. (18 refs.)

Although substance misuse among children in India has been documented for over a decade, volatile substance misuse (VSM) is a comparatively recent phenomenon there. This paper reviews available Indian studies about VSM among street children and documents the extent of misuse, experienced benefits and harms, and risk factors. Reported perceived benefits include enhanced physical strength, decreased shyness, sleep induction, feeling good, and numbing physical and psychological pain. Identified risk factors include domestic violence, a dictatorial father, presence of stepparents, migrant status, and substance use in the family. Limitations of the current paper and the need for further research are discussed.

Smerdon MJ; Francis AJP. Reward sensitivity and outcome expectancies as predictors of ecstasy use in young adults. Addictive Behaviors 36(12): 1337-1340, 2011. (31 refs.)

Extending recent studies showing that sensitivity to reward and outcome expectancies are associated with problematic alcohol and cannabis use, we undertook to determine if similar relationships would hold for ecstasy. One hundred and twenty five males and females aged between 18 and 35 years were recruited from RMIT University and through snowball sampling. Participants completed a questionnaire package measuring frequency, amount and first age of ecstasy use, sensitivity to reward and punishment as well as outcome expectancies relating to ecstasy use. Frequency of ecstasy use was significantly related to reward sensitivity (p<.05) and positive outcome expectancies (p<.01). Regression analysis revealed significant prediction of ecstasy use by study variables, with expectations of increased confidence making the largest individual contribution. Multiple intervention points are suggested by the results of this study, within a largely cognitive-based framework.

Smits JAJ; Bonn-Miller MO; Tart CD; Irons JG; Zvolensky MJ. Anxiety sensitivity as a mediator of the relationship between moderate-intensity exercise and coping-oriented marijuana use motives. American Journal on Addictions 20(2): 113-119, 2011. (62 refs.)

The present study examined the working hypothesis that moderate-intensity exercise is associated with coping-oriented marijuana use motives through its association with the fear of somatic arousal (ie, anxiety sensitivity). Using data from 146 young adult current marijuana users, we found evidence consistent with this hypothesis. Specifically, moderate-intensity exercise was associated with coping-oriented use motives, even after controlling for frequency of current marijuana use and other co-occurring marijuana use motives. This relationship became nonsignificant after entering anxiety sensitivity as an additional predictor variable, denoting a putative mediational role for this cognitive factor. These findings extend previous work and offer support for the potential utility of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise for the treatment of marijuana use problems.

Spanagel R. Why do we take drugs? From the drug-reinforcement theory to a novel concept of drug instrumentalization. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34(6): 322-322, 2011. (0 refs.)

The drug-reinforcement theory explains why humans get engaged in drug taking behavior. This theory posits that drugs of abuse serve as biological rewards by activating the reinforcement system. Although from a psychological and neurobiological perspective this theory is extremely helpful, it does not tell us about the drug-taking motives and motivation of an individual. The definition of drug instrumentalization goals will improve our understanding of individual drug-taking profiles.

Strahan EY; Panayiotou G; Clements R; Scott J. Beer, wine, and social anxiety: Testing the "self-medication hypothesis" in the US and Cyprus. Addiction Research & Theory 19(4): 302-311, 2011. (37 refs.)

The social anxiety literature often cites the self-medication hypothesis (SMH) to explain why socially phobic clients often present with alcohol problems. Based on some earlier hints that social anxiety and drinking might be related in a curvilinear way, we sought to examine the SMH to assess for possible non-linear relationships, and to examine whether cultural differences affect these relationships. We surveyed self-reported social anxiety, alcohol expectancies, and alcohol use in college students from Cyprus (N = 127) and the United States (US) (N =697). Participants were college students with a mean age of 19.8. Results revealed that positive and negative expectations about alcohol use were predictive of drinking for students from both cultures. Cypriot students endorsed fewer positive and more negative expectancies regarding alcohol use than their US counterparts, and engaged in less binge drinking. Social anxiety in men was related to drinking via a curvilinear relationship, in which drinking peaks at moderate levels of social anxiety. Among men, those with highest levels of social anxiety in both cultures drink the least. For women, there was no relationship between social anxiety level and drinking behavior. These findings demonstrate the complexity of the relationship between social anxiety and alcohol use. Far from being a linear relationship, these two variables are related in a curvilinear fashion, for men. This should inform future research on the SMH.

Sullivan RJ; Hagen EH. But is it evolution ... ? (editorial). Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34(6): 322-323, 2011. (0 refs.)

We applaud Muller & Schumann (M&S) for bringing needed attention to the problem of motivation for common non-addictive drug use, as opposed to the usual focus on exotic drugs and addiction. Unfortunately, their target article has many underdeveloped and sometimes contradictory ideas. Here, we will focus on three key issues.

Teferra S; Hanlon C; Alem A; Jacobsson L; Shibre T. Khat chewing in persons with severe mental illness in Ethiopia: A qualitative study exploring perspectives of patients and caregivers. Transcultural Psychiatry 48(4): 455-472, 2011. (27 refs.)

People with severe mental illness (SMI) in Ethiopia chew khat despite advice from their physicians to desist. We wanted to better understand their reasons for khat chewing, including any benefits that they might gain. A qualitative study was conducted involving patients with SMI and their caregivers in Butajira. Reasons given by patients as well as caregivers were more or less congruent: social pressure, a means for survival by improving function, combating medication side effects, to experience pleasure and curbing appetite. These findings will be of value to health workers, caregivers and policymakers alike in improving care and understanding for this patient group. Furthermore, our study indicates a role for future research to explore potentially beneficial effects of khat in this population.

Thorberg FA; Young RM; Sullivan KA; Lyvers M; Hurst CP; Connor JP et al. Alexithymia in alcohol dependent patients is partially mediated by alcohol expectancy. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 116(1-3): 238-241, 2011. (26 refs.)

Background: Up to fifty percent of alcohol dependent individuals have alexithymia, a personality trait characterised by difficulties identifying and describing feelings, a lack of imagination and an externalised cognitive style. Although studies have examined alexithymia in relation to alcohol dependence, no research exists on mechanisms underlying this relationship. The present study examined the mediational effect of alcohol expectancies on alexithymia and alcohol dependence. Methods: 230 outpatients completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), the Drinking Expectancy Questionnaire (DEQ) and the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT). Results: Regression analysis showed that alexithymia and alcohol dependence was, in two of three cases, partially mediated through alcohol expectancy. Conclusions: Alcohol expectancies of assertion and affective change show promise as mediators of alcohol dependence in individuals with alexithymia.

Treloar HR; McCarthy DM. Effects of mood and urgency on activation of general and specific alcohol expectancies. Addictive Behaviors 37(1): 115-118, 2012. (22 refs.)

We tested the interaction of a mood manipulation with positive and negative urgency on activation of general and specific alcohol expectancies. In Study 1, high negative urgency was associated with increased positive-alcohol IAT scores following a negative mood induction, F(1, 93) = 5.71, p < .01. In Study 2, high positive and negative urgency were associated with faster ETASK reaction times for global positive and tension reduction expectancies. These associations did not differ across mood conditions or expectancy subtypes. Our results suggest that positive and negative urgency are associated with increased activation of general, positive alcohol cognitions, rather than mood-specific subtypes.

Trucco EM; Colder CR; Bowker JC; Wieczorek WF. Interpersonal goals and susceptibility to peer influence: Risk factors for intentions to initiate substance use during early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence 31(4): 526-547, 2011. (51 refs.)

Though peer socialization theories are prominent in the adolescent substance use literature, variability in the degree to which adolescents are vulnerable to peer influence is likely, and few studies have examined this issue. This study examines the association between perceived peer substance use/approval of substance use and adolescent intentions to initiate alcohol and cigarette use and how social goals moderate this relationship. Results support the moderating role of social goals and suggest important differences across alcohol and cigarette use. Peer use and approval of cigarette use is associated with future intentions to smoke for adolescents with strong agentic goals, and peer use and approval of alcohol is associated with intentions to drink for adolescents with strong communal goals. These findings suggest that adolescent substance use theories and prevention programs focusing on peer socialization should consider individual differences in social goals and potential differences in peer influence across drugs.

van Koningsbruggen GM; Stroebe W. Lasting effects of alcohol: Subliminal alcohol cues, impairment expectancies, and math performance. European Journal of Social Psychology 41(7): 807-811, 2011. (16 refs.)

Many people believe that drinking alcohol reduces cognitive performance, and prior research has shown such expectancy-related impairment even when people merely thought that the (non-alcoholic) drink they consumed contained alcohol. This study tested whether subliminal priming with alcohol-related cues would similarly result in expectancy-consistent cognitive performance decrements. Additionally, the moderating role of alcohol use was examined. After assessing participants' baseline math performance, participants were primed with alcohol-related or neutral words and then completed a post-treatment math task. Whereas impairment expectancies had no influence on math performance in control participants, expectancies predicted math performance for participants primed with alcohol-related words. As hypothesized, expectancy-consistent impairment in performance was only observed among high alcohol users. The current findings suggest that, in the presence of alcohol-related cues in the environment, some people may perform less on cognitive tasks even in the absence of actual or assumed alcohol consumption and without being aware of it.

Vitoria PD; Salgueiro MF; Silva SA; de Vries H. Social influence, intention to smoke, and adolescent smoking behaviour longitudinal relations. British Journal of Health Psychology 16(Part 4): 779-798, 2011. (59 refs.)

Objectives. There is a debate on the determinants of smoking behaviour, their relative impact, and how impacts are exerted. This longitudinal study is on the relations among social influence, intention to smoke, and smoking behaviour, controlling for attitude and self-efficacy. Design and Methods. A model combining parents and peers with subjective and descriptive norms, resulting in four factors, was used to assess social influence. Data were collected at the beginning of the 7th(-T1), 8th(-T2), and 9th(-T3) school years, concerning 578 students (M(age) = 13.04 at T1). Structural Equation Modelling was used to test longitudinal effects. Results. Variances explained by the model were high: R(intention-T2)(2) = .65, R(behaviour-T2)(2) = .67, and R(behaviour-T3)(2) = .76. Longitudinal analyses confirmed the effects of social influence on intention and behaviour. These effects on behaviour were direct and indirect (peers' and parents' descriptive norms in both cases). Descriptive norms had a stronger effect on behaviour than subjective norms. Peers' effect on behaviour was stronger than parents', but peers' effect was exerted only through descriptive norms while parents' effect was exerted through both norms. The intention effect on behaviour was not as detached as expected and its role of full mediator between other variables' effects on behaviour was not confirmed, since descriptive norms and self-efficacy had also a mediation role. Conclusions. Results show direct and indirect effects of social influence on behaviour. Descriptive norms are an important variable to operationalize social influence. Peers and parents exert influence on adolescents' intention and behaviour through different processes. The impact of intention on behaviour is not as important as expected.

Walter NT; Mutic S; Markett S; Montag C; Klein AM; Reuter M. The influence of alcohol intake and alcohol expectations on the recognition of emotions. Alcohol and Alcoholism 46(6): 680-685, 2011. (39 refs.)

Aims: To investigate the effects of actual and expected alcohol intake on the detection and interpretation of the basic emotions happiness and anger in facial expressions. Methods: n = 102 healthy participants performed a dynamic emotion recognition task before and after receiving a drink which contained either a moderate alcohol dose or no alcohol in a double-blind design. Results: The actual alcohol intake had no effect on detecting and interpreting facial expressions. However, subjects who expected to drink alcohol judged facial expressions significantly more often as happy. No effects were observable for the recognition of anger in facial expressions. Conclusion: Our results corroborate recent studies that found that the belief of consuming alcohol does not increase anger recognition or aggressive behavior but decreases aggression and social stress.

Weinberger AH; George TP; McKee SA. Differences in smoking expectancies in smokers with and without a history of major depression. Addictive Behaviors 36(4): 434-437, 2011. (32 refs.)

Adults with depression evidence higher rates of smoking and lower quit rates than adults without depression. Little is known about the relationship between depression and smoking beliefs which are associated with both smoking and smoking cessation behavior. The primary aim of this study was to examine whether adult smokers with and without a history of major depressive disorder (MDD) differ in their endorsement of smoking expectancies. The secondary aim of the study was to examine whether there were interactions of depression and gender on the endorsement of expectancies. Adult cigarette smokers participating in a clinical trial of Selegiline hydrochloride for smoking cessation were classified as having a history of depression (MDD+, n = 26) or no history of depression (MDD-, n = 75). History of depression and smoking expectancies were assessed prior to randomization into the clinical trial. There was a main effect of depression on 7 out of 10 of the assessed beliefs. MDD+ smokers, compared to MDD- smokers, more strongly endorsed beliefs that smoking reduces negative affect, boredom, and cravings; smoking increases stimulation and social facilitation; smoking helps to manage cravings and weight; and that the taste is enjoyable. The main effect of gender and the interactive effect of depression and gender were not significant. Incorporating expectancies into cognitive-behavioral treatments for smoking cessation may be useful for smokers with a history of depression.

Wing VC; Moss TG; Rabin RA; George TP. Effects of cigarette smoking status on delay discounting in schizophrenia and healthy controls. Addictive Behaviors 37(1): 67-72, 2012. (39 refs.)

Background: Delay discounting is a measure of future-oriented decision-making and impulsivity. Cigarette smoking is associated with rapid discounting of the value of delayed outcomes. In schizophrenia, however, cigarette smoking improves certain neurocognitive impairments associated with the disorder which may explain the high smoking rates in this population. This study examined the relationship between cigarette smoking and delay discounting in schizophrenia and control participants. Methods: A total of N = 130 participants, including those with schizophrenia (n = 68) and healthy controls (n = 62) were assessed on the Kirby Delay Discounting Task and compared across smoking status (smokers; non-smokers) and smoking history (current, former; never smokers). Results: Smokers exhibited higher discounting rates (i.e., were more impulsive) than non-smokers of the same diagnostic group. Current and former smokers with schizophrenia exhibited similar and significantly higher discounting rates than never smokers, suggesting that in schizophrenia delay discounting is a trait-dependent phenomenon independent of current cigarette smoking. Consistent with previous studies, there was a trend for higher discounting rates in control current smokers compared to control former and never smokers. Conclusions: Smokers with and without schizophrenia have higher rates of delay discounting than non-smokers. However, in schizophrenia, rapid delay discounting appears to be a trait associated with having ever been a smoker (i.e., current and former smoking).

Amin TT; Amr MAM; Zaza BO. Psychosocial predictors of smoking among secondary school students in Al-Hassa, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 34(5): 339-350, 2011. (65 refs.)

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence and determinants of the current smoking status among secondary school students in Al-Hassa, Saudi Arabia. A total of 1,652 secondary school adolescents were selected by multistage proportionate sampling method. Data collection was carried out through self-administered anonymous questionnaire including: Arabic version of the Global Youth Tobacco Survey, modified Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence and Patient Health Questionnaire to asses for anxiety and depressive disorders. This study revealed that the prevalence of current smokers was 21.7. Seventy-one percent of current cigarette smokers were minimally nicotine dependent. Major depressive and anxiety disorders were significantly higher among current smokers. Hierarchical regression analysis shows that, male, older age, smoking of close relatives and friends, anxiety disorders and socializing motives were statistically significant determinants of current smoking status among the included adolescents. Family members should be made aware of the detrimental influence their smoking behavior has on their youth. Counseling and preventive psychiatric services should be an integral part of the clinical facilities caring for secondary school students.

Zamboanga BL; Ham LS; Van Tyne K; Pole N. Alcohol expectancies among adolescent nondrinkers: They may not be drinking now, but they're "thinkin bout it". Journal of Adolescent Health 49(1): 105-107, 2011. (10 refs.)

Purpose: To examine the associations of alcohol expectancy outcomes and valuations with intention to use. Method: A total of 157 adolescent nonusers completed anonymous self-report surveys. Results: Adolescents who perceived more access to alcohol, expected less negative and more positive drinking outcomes, and evaluated positive outcomes favorably reported greater intentions to drink in adulthood. Conclusion: Findings may be useful for efforts to further delay the initiation of alcohol use.