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CORK Bibliography: Drug Trade and Trafficking

156 citations. January 2007 to present

Prepared: December 2009

Akgoz S; Akkaya C; Fugen B; Turkmen N; Kan I; Kirli S. Trends in the annual incidence rates of narcotics felon's arrested over the last 30 years in metropolitan Bursa, Turkey. Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine 212(3): 253-263, 2007. (20 refs.)

Illegal substance use is a, serious problem all over the world. In order to effectively combat substance abuse it is important that both the particular features of drug users and the culture-specific risk factors that go along with drug abuse be identified. The present study was carried out in Bursa, Turkey, in order to document annual changes in the frequency of felons arrested of narcotics offenses and to establish the socio-demographics of these narcotics felons. Among the 2,230 narcotics felons reviewed, 24.3% had been charged with drug dealing but not consumption (profit-driven felons [PDFs]), 19.0% were narcotics felons charged with both dealing and consumption ([hard core drug users HCDUs]), and 56.7% were narcotics felons charged only with consumption and possession (not so hard core drug users [NHCDUs]). The NHCDUs were younger (< 30 years) than both the HCDUs and PDFs, while most of the PDFs and HCDUs were married. Despite the fact that the male/female ratio of the Bursa population was nearly I : 1 for the past 30 years, 93.0%, 95.0% and 96.0% of the PDFs, HCDUs, and NHCDUs, respectively, were male. It was also found that the most commonly used illicit substance in Bursa over this period of time was cannabis. Over the course of the 30-year period examined, the annual incidence rate of narcotics felons arrested increased from 0.4257 per 10,000 to 1.2389 per 10,000. Determining the socio-demographic characteristics of HCDUs and NHCDUs would be useful in preventing substance use before substance users become addicted.

Anderson D; Beckerleg S; Hailu D; Klein A. The Khat Controversy: Stimulating the Debate on Drugs. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 2007

Khat is a natural stimulant that, in the Middle East, is as common as coffee is in the West. It is popular in a number of African and Arab populations. This book examines the use of khat, its increasing availability and introduction to areas beyond those where it has been used historically. Included in this discussion is the role of globalization, ethnicity and culture. With its popularity escalating in large metropolitan areas from London to Rome, Toronto and Copenhagen, khat is fast being viewed as a problem in the West. Warning voices have been raised about its addictive properties and potential for being the next drug fad. This book is drawn from research efforts conducted by the authors to discern the trade in khat, the nature of related policy, and related policy issues. Following an introductory chapter which outlines the nature of khat use, discussion turns in Part I to khat Ethiopia and the Somaliland, the role of khat production, the role in export and foreign change. Part II turns to East Africa, with attention to Kenya, Meru and Uganda, their the khat trade, the impact of colonial controls, and campaigns against the drug. Part III reviews the global emergence of khat, the international trade, related social issues, and incorporates two case studies, the experience of control efforts in Canada and Sweden. The concluding chapter addresses the policy debates and the case for and against prohibition.

Asanbe CB; Hall C; Bolden CD. The methamphetamine home: Psychologyogical impact on preschoolers in rural Tennessee. Journal of Rural Health 24(3): 229-235, 2008. (22 refs.)

Context: A growing number of children reside with methamphetamine-abusing parents in homes where the illicit drug is produced. Yet, the effects of a methamphetamine environment on psychological child outcome are still unknown. Purpose: To examine whether preschoolers who lived in methamphetamine-producing homes are at increased risk for developing psychological problems. Methods: The participants were 58 white children between the ages of 4 and 5 years; 31 with a history of living in methamphetamine-producing homes and 27 children who live in non-methamphetamine producing homes in rural Tennessee. The groups were similar in age, gender, and socioeconomic background. The groups were compared for behavioral and emotional adjustment using the behavior assessment system for children-parent rating scale-preschool (BASC-PRS-P) form. Biological or custodian parents completed a rating on their preschoolers that provided information about the children's pattern of behavior and feelings. Findings: Preschoolers from the methamphetamine-producing homes showed more externalizing problems than their peers, but were comparable on internalizing problems. On specific behaviors, the data indicate that preschoolers in the methamphetamine group showed higher aggression symptoms than their peers from non-methamphetamine-producing homes. Conclusions: These findings, if replicated, point to the need for mental health screening when a child is removed from a methamphetamine-producing home.

Barker WD; Antia U. A study of the use of Ephedra in the manufacture of methamphetamine. Forensic Science International 166(2-3): 102-109, 2007. (19 refs.)

The Ephedra plant has been identified as an excellent source of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, both of which can be chemically reduced to form the widely abused illicit drug methamphetamine. Ephedra contains several additional alkaloids that undergo analogous reductions to form amphetamine and N,N-dimethylamphetamine (also drugs of abuse). The main alkaloids obtained from the Ephedra plant have been reduced using four common methods used by the clandestine operator. The intermediates and byproducts of these reductions have been identified and/or tentatively assigned and the mechanism of formation discussed.

Ben Lakhdar C. Quantitative and qualitative estimates of cross-border tobacco shopping and tobacco smuggling in France. Tobacco Control 17(1): 12-16, 2008. (15 refs.)

Objective: In France, cigarette sales have fallen sharply, especially in border areas, since the price increases of 2003 and 2004. It was proposed that these falls were not due to people quitting smoking but rather to increased cross-border sales of tobacco and/or smuggling. This paper aims to test this proposition. Methods: Three approaches have been used. First, cigarette sales data from French sources for the period 1999-2006 were collected, and a simulation of the changes seen within these sales was carried out in order to estimate what the sales situation would have looked like without the presence of foreign tobacco. Second, the statements regarding tobacco consumed reported by the French population with registered tobacco sales were compared. Finally, in order to identify the countries of origin of foreign tobacco entering France, we collected a random sample of cigarette packs from a waste collection centre. Results: According to the first method, cross-border shopping and smuggling of tobacco accounted for 8635 tonnes of tobacco in 2004, 9934 in 2005, and 9930 in 2006, ie, between 14% and 17% of total sales. The second method gave larger results: the difference between registered cigarette sales and cigarettes declared as being smoked was around 12 000 to 13 000 tonnes in 2005, equivalent to 20% of legal sales. The collection of cigarette packs at a waste collection centre showed that foreign cigarettes accounted for 18.6% of our sample in 2005 and 15.5% in 2006. France seems mainly to be a victim of cross-border purchasing of tobacco products, with the contraband market for tobacco remaining modest. Conclusion: in order to avoid cross-border purchases, an increased harmonisation of national policies on the taxation of tobacco products needs to be envisaged by the European Union.

Bloom GR; Suhail F; Hopkins-Price P; Sood A. Acute anhydrous ammonia injury from accidents during illicit methamphetamine production. Burns 34(5): 713-718, 2008. (22 refs.)

Background: Anhydrous ammonia (AA), a chemical commonly used in agriculture, is a key component in illicit methamphetamine production. Although injuries associated with AA exposure are well studied, AA injuries associated with incidents during illicit methamphetamine production have not been adequately described in the literature. Objective: This study better characterizes AA injuries occurring in an agricultural region where illicit methamphetamine production is common. Methods: We performed a cross-sectional study based on a chart review of 49 patients who were admitted to a tertiary hospital in Illinois with known or suspected exposures to chemical agents. indices of morbidity were compared between injuries resulting from exposure to AA and injuries from other chemicals, and between AA injuries from incidents during illicit methamphetamine production and AA injuries from other causes. Results: AA was the most common cause of chemical injury (41%; n = 20/49). Incidents during illicit methamphetamine production were the most common cause of AA injury (75%; n = 15/20). AA injury was associated with significantly greater morbidity compared to non-AA chemical injury. in addition, methamphetamine-related AA injury was associated with significantly greater morbidity compared to non - methamphetamine-related AA injury. Conclusion: Chemical burns during illicit methamphetamine production were the most common cause of both chemical and AA-related injury in our agricultural population and these injuries were associated with greater morbidity during hospitalization.

Blostein PA; Plaisier BR; Maltz SB; Davidson SB; Wideman EW; Feucht EC et al. Methamphetamine production is hazardous to your health. Journal of Trauma, Injury, Infection and Critical Care 66(6): 1712-1717, 2009. (28 refs.)

Background: To describe the thermal injuries related to methamphetamine (METH) production, characterize patients' courses, and compare patients with matched controls and to the previously published series. Methods: Trauma registry data from January 2001 to November 2005 was retrospectively reviewed. METH patients were compared with other burn patients of similar age and total body surface area burn size for toxicology, injury extent, therapies, hospital course, outcomes, and hospital charges. The METH group was compared with the other published series of METH-related burn patients. Results: Twenty-nine patients (86.2% male) had METH-related burns. METH and control groups were similar in age, gender, predicted resuscitation fluid volume, and total body surface area. Mortality, mean length of stay, surgical procedures, and mean hospital charges did not differ significantly between the groups. Endotracheal intubation was required more frequently in METH patients (55.2% vs. 24.1%, p = 0.020). METH patients mean resuscitation volume was greater than controls (9,638 mL vs. 6,633 mL, p = 0.011), but neither group exceeded the volume predicted by the Parkland formula. More METH patients had inhalation injury (41.4% vs. 13.8%, p = 0.019). A METH patient was more likely to have a complication than his matched control (p = 0.049), and pneumonia was more frequent in the METH group (p = 0.005). Private insurance was less common in METH patients (10.3% vs. 58.6%,p < 0.001). Conclusions: METH patients suffer more frequent inhalation injuries, need greater initial fluid resuscitation volume, require endotracheal intubation more frequently, and are more likely to have complications than matched controls. This does not translate to greater mortality, longer length of stay, more surgical procedures, or significantly greater hospital charges. Few METH patients hold private insurance.

Boeri MW; Gibson D; Harbry L. Cold cook methods: An ethnographic exploration on the myths of methamphetamine production and policy implications. International Journal of Drug Policy 20(5): 438-443, 2009. (27 refs.)

Background: Urban legends and myths are prevalent in drug-use environments. However, the distinction between myth and fact is not always clear. We found contradictory claims regarding the emergence of cold cook methods for producing methamphetamine when contrasting user-generated reports with official reports repudiating such methods as myths. Our aim is to open the topic for more academic discussion. Methods: We examine cold cook methods of methamphetamine production revealed in our ethnographic study and interviews with former (n = 50) and current (n = 48) methamphetamine users. Data were collected in the suburbs of a large southeastern city in the United States. We compare the data with reports from law enforcement professionals and public health officials. Results: Official reports claim the cold cook method described by users in our study is a myth and does not produce methamphetamine. Small-scale producers sell it as methamphetamine and users claim it has the same effect as methamphetamine. They are charged for possession and distribution of methamphetamine when caught with this drug. It appears the unintended consequences of recent policy aimed to reduce production and use of methamphetamine may be a user-friendly production method. We do not know the health implications at this time. Conclusion: We do not make any definitive conclusions on the legitimacy of the stories or myths discussed here but instead suggest that labelling drug stories as myths might lead to dismissing facts that hold partial truth. The subsequent dismissal of cold cook methods among policy and public health officials risks a range of unintended consequences among vulnerable populations. We present our case for more research attention on the myths of methamphetamine production.

Booker RJ; Smith JE; Rodger MP. Packers, pushers and stuffers-managing patients with concealed drugs in UK emergency departments: a clinical and medicolegal review. (review). Emergency Medicine Journal 26(5): 316-320, 2009. (35 refs.)

Body packing, pushing and stuffing are methods by which illicit drugs may be carried within the human body. Patients involved in these practices may present UK emergency departments with complex medical, legal and ethical considerations. This review article examines not only the evidence behind the clinical management of these patients, but also the legal powers afforded to the authorities to authorise the use of intimate searches and diagnostic imaging for forensic purposes. Serious complications from concealed drug packets are now rare, and most asymptomatic patients may be safely discharged from hospital after assessment. Emergency surgery is indicated for body packers with cocaine poisoning and for some cases of heroin poisoning. Urgent surgery is indicated for obstruction, perforation, the passage of packet fragments and failure of conservative treatment. Guidance is given for doctors who are faced with requests from the authorities to perform intimate searches and diagnostic imaging for forensic purposes.

Bouchard M; Alain M; Nguyen H. Convenient labour: The prevalence and nature of youth involvement in the cannabis cultivation industry. International Journal of Drug Policy 20(6, Special Issue): 467-474, 2009. (38 refs.)

Background: The emergence of cannabis cultivation in industrialised countries may offer adolescents, especially those living in regions suitable for outdoor cultivation, new opportunities to participate in the drug trade. The current study examines the prevalence and the nature of youth involvement in cannabis cultivation in an important agricultural region of Quebec, Canada. Methods: A self-report delinquency survey was administered to 1262 adolescents between 13 and 17 years who were attending one of four secondary schools in that region. The study location was not chosen arbitrarily. The region was known for having a larger than average outdoor cannabis industry, and various media reports suggested that a substantial number of students missed school days during the cannabis harvest season, in October. Results: A first set of findings show that 12% of respondents reported having participated in the cannabis cultivation industry in the past year. Such a prevalence rate is higher than for any other type of crime found in the survey (except for the general category of mischief)-including assault and theft, and is comparable to the prevalence rates found for drug dealing. Such a high prevalence rate comes in part out of need for labour in this low population density region: 35% of respondents who reported having participated in the industry in the past year, were "labourers", while many others only participated in small sites, destined for personal use. Another set of findings suggest that growers are a very diverse group: although cultivation is the most prevalent money-generating crime for gang members in the region, girls and otherwise conventional adolescents are also involved in high numbers. Conclusion: These results emphasise the need to design policies that concern not just the prevention of drug use among youth, but also youth involvement in the supply of drugs. In addition, it underlines the difficulty of planning general interventions in what appears to be a very heterogeneous population of growers.

Brownstein HH; Taylor BG. Measuring the stability of illicit drug markets: Why does it matter? Drug and Alcohol Dependence 90(Supplement 1): S52-S60, 2007. (34 refs.)

Contemporary drug policy in the United States favors a balanced approach including a supply side dimension. The supply side dimension is grounded in the assumption that the disruption of illicit drug markets will result in diminished capacity of the markets to provide for consumer demand and thereby a reduction in the use of illicit drugs and a related increase in demand for treatment. In this paper we consider the disruption of meth amphetamine markets in 10 cities in terms of the relative stability of those markets. We use data from the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) program for the years 2000-2003. We conduct a comparative analysis of those markets and look at patterns of methamphetamine use and participation in treatment in those cities. Our findings demonstrate how it is possible to construct measures of market stability, and how to use those measures to assess the stability of illicit drug markets in terms of both relative value and in fluctuation over time. We also demonstrate that markets with different patterns of stability will exhibit different patterns of drug using and treatment participation. We conclude that understanding patterns of market stability will help us to understand and respond to patterns of drug using and treatment participation.

Brunt TM; Rigter S; Hoek J; Vogels N; van Dijk P; Niesink RJM. An analysis of cocaine powder in the Netherlands: Content and health hazards due to adulterants. Addiction 104(5): 798-805, 2009. (38 refs.)

Aims: To report on trends in the content and adulterants present in street cocaine ( powder) in the Netherlands and to describe the associated health hazards. Design and participants Drug consumers handed in samples of cocaine powder from 1999 to 2007 for analysis. Reports were compiled of users' experiences with the samples received. Measurements and analysis Linear regression analysis was used to assess the trend in adulterated cocaine powder across the study period, and comparison of reported adverse effects of adulterated with those of unadulterated cocaine by Fisher's exact test. Findings There has been a statistically significant upward trend in the occurrence of adulterated cocaine powder over the years. Adulterated cocaine was associated more frequently with reported adverse effects than unadulterated cocaine. Phenacetin, hydroxyzine and diltiazem appeared to be three adulterants contributing to these adverse effects. Conclusions An increase in adulterants was detected in the analysed cocaine powder between 1999 and 2007. This increase is associated with relatively more adverse effects with cocaine use. The cardiac and hallucinatory effects that were reported more frequently are not understood clearly. Adverse effects are likely to be due to several factors, including interactions of adulterants with cocaine and the route of administration.

Bucerius SM. "What else should I do?" Cultural influences on the drug trade of migrants in Germany. Journal of Drug Issues 37(3): 673-697, 2007. (58 refs.)

The article is based on ethnographic research in Frankfurt am Main/Germany with young male migrants who are involved in drug dealing. The aim is to give an account of the mechanisms, values, and self-constructions that influence the dealers, e.g., in their choice of substances dealt, their display of violence, how they neutralize contradicting values, etc. Moreover, changes in the studied milieu that have occurred over time will be examined. Most interesting seems the fact that the subjects' cultural background has a greater impact on their business than economic rationality, the "seductions of crime" or the "search of respect." Their distinct concept of purity and impurity, honor and dishonor, and their morality regarding the choice of substances seem particularly interesting and influence their behavior in the market.

Campbell G; Degenhardt L. ACT Trends in Ecstasy and Related Drug Markets 2006: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS). NDARC Technical Report No. 276. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, 2007. (32 refs.)

This report presents information on ecstasy and other related drug markets for the Australian Capital Territory. In addition to ecstasy, date, gathered by survey is provided on methamphetamine, cocaine, GHB and ketamine, LSD, and MDA, assessed by survey. The report outlines trends in the use and associated harms of these drugs, as well as their price, purity and availability. Information is presented on the demographic characteristics of regular ecstasy users, the natural history of ecstasy and accompanying drug use. The majority of users also regularly use alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis. Common risk behaviors are identified, related to route of administration, sexual activity, and driving. Problems attendant to use are discussed: health problems, financial difficulty, relationship problems, and criminal activity. Following a summary conclusion, the report sets forth implications for health policy and harm reduction strategies. Data is presented in 87 tables and figures.

Campbell H. Female drug smugglers on the US-Mexico border: Gender, crime, and empowerment. Anthropology Quarterly 81(1): 233-267, 2008. (81 refs.)

Women's involvement in drug trafficking in recent years has expanded dramatically. Yet there are few studies of female drug smugglers, the causes of female involvement in smuggling, and the impact of smuggling on women's lives specifically. in this article, I provide in-depth ethnographic interviews and observations of a broad spectrum of female drug smugglers on the U.S.-Mexico border. Moving beyond stereotypes, I examine how drug trafficking affects women's relationships with men and their position in society. Economic and cultural factors strongly shape women's involvement in drug smuggling and the effects of smuggling on their lives, but these factors and effects vary significantly, depending on women's social class position and place within drug organizations. High-level female drug smugglers may be attracted to the power and mystique of drug trafficking and may achieve a relative independence from male dominance. Middle-level women in smuggling organizations obtain less freedom vis-a-vis men but may manipulate gender stereotypes to their advantage in the smuggling world. Low-level mules also perform (or subvert) traditional gender roles as a smuggling strategy, but receive less economic benefit and less power, though in some cases some independence from male domestic control. A fourth category of women do not smuggle drugs but are negatively impacted by the male smugglers with whom they are associated. I argue that drug smuggling frequently leads to female victimization, especially at the lowest and middle levels of drug trafficking organizations. However, it is also, in the case of high-level and some low-level and middle-level smugglers, a vehicle for female empowerment.

Carter C. Making residential cannabis growing operations actionable: A critical policy analysis. International Journal of Drug Policy 20(4): 371-376, 2009. (42 refs.)

Background: In 2006, the British Columbia (BC) government passed amendments to its Safety Standards Act. These amendments permit the routine disclosure of electrical usage information from electrical producers to BC's municipalities, ostensibly to identify and eradicate residential cannabis growing operations (grow ops). These amendments originated in a pilot project in Surrey, BC, known as the electrical and fire safety inspection initiative (EFSI), which drew together police, firefighters and others, to identify grow ops through the process of municipal electrical inspections. Methods: This paper draws on narrative analysis to critically explore how the report of the EFSI Surrey pilot project uses a series of linked claims to generate interpretative change in the definition of the problem of grow ops. This analysis also shows how claims about grow ops are constructed and gain their potency through links with other social problems, persons, and practices. Results: Though the report of the EFSI project is a prohibitionist text replete with stock characters and themes from the history of Canadian drug policy, the problem of residential cannabis cultivation is made actionable by establishing grow operators as "superdeviants" constructed both as dangerous outsiders and as risks to a host of public safety concerns. These claims are then linked to the notion of an overwhelmed criminal justice system that establishes a "crisis" that justifies extraordinary methods of social control outside the due process of the criminal justice system. Conclusions: Construction of all cannabis cultivators as "dangerous" disavows other possibilities and shores up neo-liberal practices of government that draw on multi-partner initiatives to implement extraordinary methods of social control not necessarily subject to public accountability.

Casale JF. Cocaethylene as a component in illicit cocaine. (letter). Journal of Analytic Toxicology 31(3): 170-171, 2007. (3 refs.)

Casale JF; Boudreau DK; Jones LM. Tropane ethyl esters in illicit cocaine: Isolation, detection, and determination of new manufacturing by-products from the clandestine purification of crude cocaine base with ethanol. Journal of Forensic Sciences 53(3): 661-667, 2008. (10 refs.)

Seven ethyl homologues of known tropane esters have recently been detected as impurities in the gas chromatographic signature profiles of authentic Peruvian illicit cocaine base and hydrochloride exhibits. Peruvian cocaine base processors are now known to use ethanol for the purification of crude cocaine base. This process is referred to as the "base lavada" or "washed base" process and is a recent substitute method for the potassium permanganate oxidation purification methodology. Seven ethyl ester homologues were formed in illicit cocaine from the transesterification of known tropane methyl esters or possibly ethyl esterification of their respective tropane C-2 carboxylic acids in the presence of ethanol. Exhibits containing these compounds were subjected to gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analyses to determine their identity and were subsequently synthesized to verify their structures. Quantitative determinations were obtained from ion-pair chromatography isolation followed by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. Specifically, hexanoylecgonine ethyl ester, cocaethylene, cis-cinnamoylecgonine ethyl ester, trans-cinnamoylecgonine ethyl ester, 3',4',5'-trimethoxybenzoylecgonine ethyl ester, cis-3',4',5'-trimethoxycinnamoylecgonine ethyl ester, and trans-3',4',5'-trimethoxycinnamoylecgonine ethyl ester were detected and characterized. When present, these compounds were detected at levels ranging from 8.6 x 10(-4) to 9.3 x 10(-1)% relative to cocaine.

Caulkins J. How to expland the 'sample size' of studies of drug market disruptions. (editorial). Addiction 104(3): 454-455, 2009. (5 refs.)

Cawich SO; Williams EW; Evans NR; Johnson P. Occupational hazard: Treating cocaine body packers in Caribbean countries. International Journal of Drug Policy 20(4): 377-380, 2009. (22 refs.)

Body packing is a common method of smuggling cocaine where individuals ingest several drug-fllled parcels for transport. When identified by the authorities, body packers are usually taken to hospital for evaluation. There are several points during management of these patients when the health care team may be placed at risk. We explore the hazards encountered during the management of these patients in developing Caribbean nations.

Chandra S. Economic manifestations of opiate addiction: Evidence from historical data from colonial Indonesia. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 90(Supplement 1): S69-S84, 2007. (45 refs.)

The aim of this paper is to demonstrate, using an example, the utility of historical data to illuminate important questions in the field of drug dependence research. The literature on the consumption of addictive substances often characterizes users as being one of two types: "addicts" and "casual users". An econometric characterization of the responses of opium consumers in the late-colonial Netherlands Indies to changes in the price of opium and other important variables is provided, which explicitly acknowledges the existence of different types of opium smokers, as modeled in the underlying theory. The results reveal systematic differences between the behavior of groups of high-intensity consumers and groups of low-intensity consumers. While the findings show that both groups showed similar total price elasticities, the high-intensity consumers were affected predominantly via changes in the number of users rather than in per capita consumption. In the course of the analysis, various analytic methods that are new to the field of drug dependence research are introduced.

Chen ZL; Huang KC. Drug problems in China - Recent trends, countermeasures and challenges. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 51(1): 98-109, 2007. (26 refs.)

Drug crime in China is on an overall rising trend. Major drug crime cases are becoming more common, the types of drugs being trafficked are more diverse, and the smuggling and trafficking of drugs into the country and the smuggling of precursor chemicals out of the country have formed a bidirectional cycle. Drug crimes in China have also begun to show a conspicuous trend of internationalization. China's main countermeasures against drug crimes have been to pass new laws and regulations against drugs, to increase the efforts to eradicate cultivation, to establish and expand "drug-free communities" programs, and to strengthen international cooperation in antidrug campaigns. The existing problems demand prompt solutions, which include a shortage of funding and lack of accurate knowledge about prevalence of drug abuse and related data for scientifically studying the drug problems.

Chintalova-Dallas R; Case P; Kitsenko N; Lazzarini Z. Boltushka: A homemade amphetamine-type stimulant and HIV risk in Odessa, Ukraine. International Journal of Drug Policy 20(4): 347-351, 2009. (21 refs.)

Background: Homemade amphetamine-type stimulants (ATSs) have been reported in Russia and Eastern Europe for decades. Recipes differ geographically and over time producing differing active ingredients. Vint and jeff (active ingredients methamphetamine and methcathinone, respectively) are two such homemade ATSs originally produced from over-the-counter cold medications and household chemicals. Methods: During a Rapid Policy Assessment and Responses (RPAR) project in Odessa, Ukraine, researchers found use of boltushka, a novel homemade ATS. Fourteen supplemental qualitative interviews were conducted, including ten interviews with boltushka injectors and four interviews with pharmacists. We report patterns of boltushka use among local injection drug users (IDUs) as well as the role of laws, regulations, and current pharmacy practices. Results: Legal restrictions on over-the-counter cold medicines in Ukraine led to products containing phenylpropanolamine (PPA), which oxidised with KMnO4 (potassium permanganate), produces a weak ATS, cathinone, called boltushka. Boltushka's ingredients are easily available in pharmacies or on the black market. IDUs reported a mean age at first use of 16 years old (range 12-21). While published data are scant, anecdotal evidence reported here include amphetamine-like effects on energy and appetite, binging patterns of use, and some reports of shaking and other neurological damage consistent with earlier reports from exposure to KMnO4. Users reported sharing syringes and other non-sterile injection practices. No users reported specific treatment or prevention programs for boltushka users. Conclusions: Although Ukrainian government regulations have limited access to precursor chemicals, IDUs have continued to make and use boltushka. The actual extent and demographics of boltushka use are unknown. Besides risk of bloodborne disease, the health effects of injected homemade ATSs and their constituent chemicals are poorly documented. Interventions beyond available harm reduction efforts may be required. Education/treatment specific to boltushka users and screening for other physical harms are critical interventions.

Ciccarone D. Heroin in brown, black and white: Structural factors and medical consequences in the US heroin market. International Journal of Drug Policy 20(3, Special Issue): 277-282, 2009. (61 refs.)

Background: Heroin coming into the United States historically comes from three widely dispersed geographical regions: Southwest Asia, Southeast Asia and Mexico. A fourth source of US-bound heroin, from Colombia, originated in the early 1990s. The fact that the four heroin sources produce differing morphologies and qualities of heroin has not been critically examined. in addition, it is not well established how the contemporary competing dynamics of interdiction, or restriction of heroin flows across international boundaries, and neoliberal, e.g., global expansion of free trade, policies are affecting heroin markets. This paper will highlight changes in the US heroin market, including source trends, the political economy of the now dominant Source and the resultant effects on the heroin risk environment by US region. Methods: Using a structural and historical framework this paper examines two decades of secondary data sources, including government and drug control agency documents, on heroin flows together with published work on the political and economic dynamics in Latin America. Results: Co-occurring neoliberal economic reforms may have contributed to paradoxical effects of US/Colombian interdiction efforts. Since entering the US market, heroin from Colombia has been distributed at a much higher quality and lower retail price. An increasingly exclusive market has developed with Mexican and Colombian heroin gaining market share and displacing Asian heroin. These trends have had dramatic effects on the risk environment for heroin consumers. An intriguing factor is that different global sources of heroin produce substantially different products. Plausible associations exist between heroin source/form and drug use behaviours and harms. For example, cold water-soluble powdered heroin (Sources: Asia, Colombia) may be associated with higher HIV prevalence in the US, while low-solubility "black tar" heroin (BTH; source: Mexico) is historically used in areas with reduced HIV prevalence. BTH is associated with soft tissue infections caused by Clostridium bacteria. Conclusion: Source and type of heroin are structural factors in the risk environment of heroin users: source dictates distribution and type predicts practice. How specific types of heroin are used and with what risk is therefore distributed geographically. Continued flux in the heroin market and its effects on the risk environment for drug users deserves further attention.

Ciccarone D; Unick GJ; Kraus A. Impact of South American heroin on the US heroin market 1993-2004. International Journal of Drug Policy 20(5): 392-401, 2009. (71 refs.)

Background: The past two decades have seen an increase in heroin-related morbidity and mortality in the United States. We report on trends in US heroin retail price and purity, including the effect of entry of Colombian-sourced heroin on the US heroin market. Methods: The average standardized price ($/mg-pure) and purity (% by weight) of heroin from 1993 to 2004 was from obtained from US Drug Enforcement Agency retail purchase data for 20 metropolitan statistical areas. Univariate statistics, robust Ordinary Least Squares regression and mixed fixed and random effect growth curve models were used to predict the price and purity data in each metropolitan statistical area over time. Results: Over the 12 study years, heroin price decreased 62%. The median percentage of all heroin samples that are of South American origin increased an absolute 7% per year. Multivariate models suggest percent South American heroin is a significant predictor of lower heroin price and higher purity adjusting for time and demographics. Conclusion: These analyses reveal trends to historically low-cost heroin in many US cities. These changes correspond to the entrance into and rapid domination of the US heroin market by Colombian-sourced heroin. The implications of these changes are discussed.

Clemens J. Opium in Afghanistan: Prospects for the success of source country drug control policies. Journal of Law & Economics 51(3): 407-432, 2008. (41 refs.)

Recent estimates suggest that in 2007, Afghan opiate production accounted for about 93 percent of the world's total. This article presents a framework for estimating the potential for source country drug control policies to reduce this production. It contains a first pass at estimating the potential for policy to shift the supply of opium upward, as well as a range of supply and demand elasticities. The estimates suggest that meager reductions in production can be expected through alternative development programs alone (reductions are less than 6.5 percent in all but one of the specifications presented). They also suggest that substantial increases in crop eradication would be needed to achieve even moderate reductions in production (reductions range from 3.0 percent to 19.4 percent for various specifications). The results also imply that, all else being equal, the cessation of crop eradication would result in only modest increases in opiate production (with estimates ranging from 1.6 percent to 9.6 percent).

Collins M; Heagney A; Cordaro F; Odgers D; Tarrant G; Stewart S. Methyl 3-[3 ',4 '-(methylenedioxy)phenyl]-2-methyl glycidate: An ecstasy precursor seized in Sydney, Australia. Journal of Forensic Sciences 52(4): 898-903, 2007. (9 refs.)

Five 44 gallon drums labeled as glycidyl methacrylate were seized by the Australian Customs Service and the Australian Federal Police at Port Botany, Sydney, Australia, in December 2004. Each drum contained a white, semisolid substance that was initially suspected to be 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA). Gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) analysis demonstrated that the material was neither glycidyl methacrylate nor MDMA. Because intelligence sources employed by federal agents indicated that this material was in some way connected to MDMA production, suspicion fell on the various MDMA precursor chemicals. Using a number of techniques including proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (H-1 NMR), carbon nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (C-13 NMR), GC/MS, infrared spectroscopy, and total synthesis, the unknown substance was eventually identified as methyl 3-[3',4'(methylenedioxy)phenyl]-2-methyl glycidate. The substance was also subjected to a published hydrolysis and decarboxylation procedure and gave a high yield of the MDMA precursor chemical, 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone, thereby establishing this material as a "precursor to a precursor".

Contreras R. "Damn, Yo-Who's That Girl?" An ethnographic analysis of masculinity in drug robberies. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 38(4): 465-492, 2009. (62 refs.)

Previous street crime research has shown that female robbers manipulate their sexuality to secure male victims. Also, the larger ethnographic drug market literature has shown how male criminals construct masculinity through the sexual and economic manipulation of women. However, both accounts miss how male criminals manipulate the masculinity of other men to victimize them. This article fills that gap, showing how male drug robbers play on the masculinity of male dealers to bait them into a robbery. Through The Girl, a female accomplice, male drug robbers lure male dealers, believing that men demonstrate masculinity through sexual relations with women. Apart from this, male drug robbers construct their own masculinity through The Girl, who is often manipulated and exploited through sexist stereotypes and practices. This research is based on ethnographic field data collected on a group of Dominican drug robbers in a South Bronx neighborhood.

Coomber R; Turnbull P. Arenas of drug transactions: Adolescent cannabis transactions in England -- Social supply. Journal of Drug Issues 37(4): 845-865, 2007. (33 refs.)

The issue of the social supply of illicit drugs is an important one because it delineates a separate category of "dealing," whereby friends supply or facilitate supply to other friends. Supply of this nature has been argued to be sufficiently different to "dealing proper" to justify a different criminal justice approach in relation to it. This has been argued to be particularly true regarding social supply among young people who use substances such as cannabis. This research involved interviews with 192 cannabis users in six (three rural, three urban) locations in England. Most were exclusively cannabis users. Nearly half (45%) had been involved in some form of supply, and 78% reported sharing their cannabis with others. Nearly all supply events were between friends within a close age range. The findings suggest that there is little contact by young cannabis users to the wider drug market and that it may be better to understand this activity as taking place in an "arena of transaction" rather than seeing it as an extension of the normally conceived drug market We argue that there is sufficient difference within this arena of transaction from the wider drug market for most activity there to be dealt with less punitively by the criminal justice system.

Cox M; Klass G; Koo CWM. Manufacturing by-products from, and stereochemical outcomes of the biotransformation of benzaldehyde used in the synthesis of methamphetamine. Forensic Science International 189(1-3): 60-67, 2009. (22 refs.)

Clandestine synthesis of methamphetamine in Australia has predominantly started from pseudoephedrine extracted from over-the-counter cold and flu medications. However, recently introduced restrictions on the sale of these products have made pseudoephedrine much more difficult to obtain. As a result clandestine chemists have had to resort to other means of obtaining the necessary chemical precursors. A recent drug raid (Adelaide, January 2008) resulted in the seizure of an unusual reaction mixture that indicated a novel approach involving the fermentation of glucose by yeast in the presence of benzaldehyde to give 1-hydroxy-1-plienylpropanone, also known as I-phenylacetylcarbinol (l-PAC). a known precursor to ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, and hence methamphetamine. A study was undertaken into this process with the aim of determining the characteristic reaction by-products associated with methamphetamine made in this way. The study also looked at the stereochemical selectivity of the fermentation reaction and the stereochemistry of the subsequent reaction products, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, and the final methamphetamine.

Cunningham JK; Liu LM; Callaghan R. Impact of US and Canadian precursor regulation on methamphetamine purity in the United States. Addiction 104(3): 441-453, 2009. (62 refs.)

Reducing drug purity is a major, but largely unstudied, goal of drug suppression. This study examines whether US methamphetamine purity was impacted by the suppression policy of US and Canadian precursor chemical regulation. Autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA)-intervention time-series analysis. Continental United States and Hawaii (1985-May 2005). US federal regulations targeting precursors, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, in forms used by large-scale producers were implemented in November 1989, August 1995 and October 1997. US regulations targeting precursors in forms used by small-scale producers (e.g. over-the-counter medications) were implemented in October 1996 and October 2001. Canada implemented federal precursor regulations in January 2003 and July 2003 and an essential chemical (e.g. acetone) regulation in January 2004. Monthly median methamphetamine purity series. US regulations targeting large-scale producers were associated with purity declines of 16-67 points; those targeting small-scale producers had little or no impact. Canada's precursor regulations were associated with purity increases of 13-15 points, while its essential chemical regulation was associated with a 13-point decrease. Hawaii's purity was consistently high, and appeared to vary little with the 1990s/2000s regulations. US precursor regulations targeting large-scale producers were associated with substantial decreases in continental US methamphetamine purity, while regulations targeting over-the-counter medications had little or no impact. Canada's essential chemical regulation was also associated with a decrease in continental US purity. However, Canada's precursor regulations were associated with purity increases: these regulations may have impacted primarily producers of lower-quality methamphetamine, leaving higher-purity methamphetamine on the market by default. Hawaii's well-known preference for 'ice' (high-purity methamphetamine) may have helped to constrain purity there to a high, attenuated range, possibly limiting its sensitivity to precursor regulation.

Cunningham JK; Liu LM; Muramoto M. Methamphetamine suppression and route of administration: Precursor regulation impacts on snorting, smoking, swallowing and injecting. Addiction 103(7): 1174-1186, 2008. (50 refs.)

Aims The route of drug administration affects risk for dependence and medical harm. This study examines whether routes used by methamphetamine treatment participants were impacted by a major drug suppression policy-federal regulation of the methamphetamine precursor chemicals ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. Design: Autoregressive-integrated moving average (ARIMA) intervention time-series analysis. Setting: California (1992-2004). Interventions: Ephedrine single-ingredient products regulation, implemented August 1995; ephedrine with other active medicinal ingredients regulation, implemented October 1996; pseudoephedrine products regulation, implemented October 1997. Measurements: Monthly counts of non-coerced methamphetamine treatment admissions reporting snorting, smoking, swallowing or injecting. Findings: After rising sharply, snorting, smoking, swallowing and injecting admissions dropped 50%, 43%, 26% and 26%, respectively, when the 1995 regulation was implemented. Snorting also dropped 38% at the time of the 1997 regulation. Snorting, swallowing and injecting remained at lower levels to the end of the study period. Smoking resurged (40%) at the time of the 1996 regulation and continued rising. Conclusions: Precursor regulation was associated with changes in the administration of methamphetamine. Injecting, the route with the greatest health risk, entered a long-term reduction. So, too, did snorting and swallowing, two routes with lower risk for dependence. In contrast, smoking, which has a relatively high risk for dependence, dropped, then rebounded and entered a long-term rise. A possible explanation is that injecting, snorting and swallowing were largely linked with US domestic methamphetamine production, which has yet to recover from the regulations. While Mexican production, which was impacted only temporarily by the regulations and has supplanted domestic production, may have helped to diffuse smoking, a route with which it is historically correlated.

Curtis R; Wendel T. "You're always training the dog": Strategic interventions to reconfigure drug markets. Journal of Drug Issues 37(4): 867-892, 2007. (42 refs.)

Based on ethnographic observation of the changes in drug markets and violence in New York City over the past 20 years, this paper compares and contrasts three distinct types of drug markets and the types of systemic violence that are characteristic of each and argues that knowing which kinds of markets and contexts are associated with what kinds of violence can be valuable for policy makers and professionals. Further, evolving drug markets and different forms of violence associated with particular market types are, in part, responses to law enforcement interventions intended to eliminate drug markets. Police interventions alter the character of drug markets -- either for better or for worse -- as they adapt, and these interventions can produce markedly different outcomes with regard to violence and crime. Comparatively brief interventions of limited scope can effectively control violence and reconfigure markets by "training" them to act in ways less likely to produce violence and social disorder.

Davalos LM; Bejarano AC; Correa HL. Disabusing cocaine: Pervasive myths and enduring realities of a globalised commodity. (editorial). International Journal of Drug Policy 20(5): 381-386, 2009. (32 refs.)

For more than 30 years Colombia has waged an internal War on Drugs with the support of the international community. During this time, the illegal economy has evolved toward integrating cultivation with processing and trafficking, making Colombia the largest grower of coca in the world. The environmental impact of coca production and processing is vast, accounting for large quantities of toxic chemicals directly dumped onto the soil and watersheds, as well as most deforestation since the 1990s. The policies pursued to stem the coca economy, however, are based on unfounded assumptions about the behaviour of coca growers in the context of international markets. Despite their unfounded premises, these assumptions have acquired a mythical stature. In this article we review the most persistent myths about coca production with a view to understanding its links to environmental degradation. To this end, we present data on the economic and demographic background of coca growers, their impact on the environment, and their behaviour in the larger context of international markets and current eradication policies.

Davis WR; Johnson BD. Prescription opioid use, misuse, and diversion among street drug users in New York City. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 92(1/3): 267-276, 2008. (24 refs.)

Objective: The use of heroin, cocaine, and other drugs is well researched in New York City, but prescription opioids (POs) have been overlooked. This study documents patterns of PO use, misuse, and diversion among street drug users, and begins to indicate how drug culture practices interact with the legitimate therapeutic goals of PO prescriptions (e.g. pain management). Methods: Staff completed interviews inquiring about the reasons for use of POs and illicit drugs with 586 street drug users. Ethnographers wrote extensive field notes about subjects' complex patterns of PO use. Results: Methadone was used (71.9%) and sold (64.7%) at a higher level than OxyContin, Vicodin, and Percocet, used by between 34% and 38% of the users and sold by between 28% and 41% of the sellers. Recent PO use is associated with the recency of using heroin and cocaine (P <.001). Half of the heroin/cocaine sellers sold POs, and one quarter of the PO sellers only sold POs. Subjects were classified into four groups by whether they diverted POs or used POs to relieve pain or withdrawal rather than for euphoria. This classification was associated with frequency of PO use, whether POs were obtained from doctors/pharmacies or from drug dealers and family members, and those mostly likely to use POs for pain and withdrawal. Conclusions: POs are an important component of street drug users' drug-taking regimes, especially those who are Physically III Chemical Abusers. Future research is needed to model PO use, misuse, and diversion among this population.

de Beer SA; Fa-Si-Oen PR. Diagnosis of heroin body packing using computed tomography. (editorial). Southern Medical Journal 102(5): 450-451, 2009

DeBeck K; Shannon K; Wood E; Li K; Montaner J; Kerr T. Income generating activities of people who inject drugs. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 91(1): 50-56, 2007. (44 refs.)

Background: Injection drug users (IDU) commonly generate income through prohibited activities, such as drug dealing and sex trade work, which carry significant risk. However, little is known about the IDU who engage in such activities and the role of active drug use in perpetuating this behavior. Methods: We evaluated factors associated with prohibited income generation among participants enrolled in the Vancouver Injection Drug Users Study (VIDUS) using logistic and linear regression. We also examined which sources of income respondents would eliminate if they did not require money to pay for drugs. Results: Among 275 IDU, 145 (53%) reported engaging in prohibited income generating activities in the past 30 days. Sex work and drug dealing accounted for the greatest amount of income generated. Non-aboriginal females were the group most likely to report prohibited income generation. Other variables independently associated with prohibited income generation include daily heroin injection (AOR = 2.3) and daily use of crack cocaine (AOR = 3.5). Among these individuals, 68 (47%) indicated they would forgo these earnings if they did not require money for illegal drugs, with those engaged in sex trade work (62%) being most willing to give up their illegal source of income. Conclusion: These findings suggest that the costs associated with illicit drugs are compelling IDU, particularly those possessing markers of higher intensity addiction, to engage in prohibited income generating activities. These findings also point to an opportunity to explore interventions that relieve the financial pressure of purchasing illegal drugs and reduce engagement in such activities, such as low threshold employment and expansion of prescription and substitution therapies.

DeBeck K; Wood E. Law enforcement and Australia's 2001 heroin shortage: Evaluationing the evidence. (editorial). International Journal of Drug Policy 19(4): 287-290, 2008. (26 refs.)

Degenhardt L; Hall W. Australian heroin seizures and the causes of the 2001 heroin shortage. (editorial). International Journal of Drug Policy 19(4): 293-294, 2008. (14 refs.)

Degenhardt L; Roxburgh A; Van Beek I; Hall WD; Robinson MKF; Ross J et al. The effects of the market withdrawal of temazepam gel capsules on benzodiazepine injecting in Sydney, Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review 27(2): 145-151, 2008. (26 refs.)

Introduction and Aims. This study assessed the impact on benzodiazepine injection among IDU in Sydney of removing temazepam gel capsule preparations from the Australian market. Design and Methods. Several data sources were used: (1) data from the NSW Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS) (an annual, cross-sectional survey of regular IDU in Sydney) for the period 1996-2005; (2) data from inner Sydney outreach services and the Sydney Medically Supervised Injecting Centre (MSIC) on last drug injected; and (3) national benzodiazepine prescription data, by formulation, from the Drug Utilisation Sub-Committee for the period 2001-06. Results. Removal of temazepam gel capsule formulations from the Australian market in 2004 resulted in increased prescribing of tablet formulations but overall benzodiazepine prescription numbers remained stable. Injection of benzodiazepines ceased as a mode of administration of benzodiazepines among IDU in inner Sydney, but very frequent oral use of benzodiazepines remained highly prevalent. Discussion and conclusions. Removal of an easily injectable form of benzodiazepines appeared to halt injection of benzodiazepines among disadvantaged IDU. However, IDU continue to use the drug heavily and interventions to assist IDU with reducing dependent benzodiazepine use are warranted. There is a need for continued vigilance to emergent injecting drug use risks to implement timely harm reduction strategies.

Delipalla S. Tobacco tax structure and smuggling. Finanzarchiv 65(1): 93-104, 2009. (20 refs.)

In a noncompetitive environment, a tax increase leads to a higher fraction of sales smuggled under pure ad valorem taxation, but the effect is ambiguous under a purely specific tax. Under a mixed tax regime, a tax rise increases the fraction of sales smuggled when the balance of the two types of taxes leans towards the ad valorem component. In any case, shifting the balance towards the predominant tax component reduces smuggling. The results are of direct relevance to global tobacco control policies and, in particular, to the smoking intervention and tax harmonization policies in the European Union.

Denton JS; Donoghue ER; McReynolds J; Kalelkar MB. An epidemic of illicit fentanyl deaths in Cook County, Illinois: September 2005 through April 2007. Journal of Forensic Sciences 53(2): 452-454, 2008. (14 refs.)

Between September 2005 and April 2007, 350 fentanyl intoxication deaths were investigated and certified by the Cook County Medical Examiners Office. Investigations revealed that the majority of these fatalities were by intravenous injection of a white powder followed by a rapid collapse. The fentanyl was clandestinely produced in a lab in Toluca, Mexico and sold by the Mickey Cobra street gang. The term "Drop Dead" was coined for this "tainted heroin." Postmortem samples were screened by ELISA and confirmed by standard GC-MS methods. Fentanyl fatalities peaked at 47 per month in May and June 2006. Fifty-two percent were single fentanyl intoxications, with the remainder accompanied by either cocaine, morphine from heroin, or alcohol. This epidemic stressed the limited resources of the toxicology laboratory and autopsy service of the Medical Examiners Office. The clandestine lab was terminated, distributing gang members and leaders arrested, and the epidemic ceased in April 2007.

Desroches F. Research on upper level drug trafficking: A review. Journal of Drug Issues 37(4): 827-844, 2007. (46 refs.)

This article examines research on upper level drug traffickers in the U.S., the UK, Canada, and the Netherlands. Included is an analysis and critique of typologies of drug traffickers and theoretical models of organized crime as they apply to upper level drug networks. Studies of higher level drug trafficking indicate that drug markets represent informal and loosely organized associations of relatively small syndicates or crews of independent drug entrepreneurs. They compete for market share and deal primarily or exclusively with trusted associates chosen from ethnic, kinship, and friendship networks. Most dealers are highly cautious, eschew the use of violence, typically make huge profits, attempt to maintain a low profile, rationalize their conduct as business activity, and operate within geographically niche markets.

Dietze P. What more can we learn from the heroin drought? (editorial). International Journal of Drug Policy 19(4): 270-272, 2008. (19 refs.)

Dunlap E; Johnson BD; Morse E. Illicit drug markets among New Orleans evacuees before and soon after hurricane Katrina. Journal of Drug Issues 37(4): 981-1006, 2007. (22 refs.)

This paper analyzes illicit drug markets in New Orleans before and after Hurricane Katrina and access to drug markets following evacuation at many locations and in Houston. Among New Orleans arrestees pre-Katrina, rates of crack and heroin use and market participation was comparable to New York and higher than in other southern cities. Both cities have vigorous outdoor drug markets. Over 100 New Orleans evacuees provide rich accounts describing the illicit markets in New Orleans and elsewhere. The flooding of New Orleans disrupted the city's flourishing drug markets, both during and immediately after the storm. Drug supplies, though limited, were never completely unavailable. Subjects reported that alcohol or drugs were not being used in the Houston Astrodome, and it was a supportive environment. Outside the Astrodome, they were often approached by or could easily locate middlemen and drug sellers. Evacuees could typically access illegal drug markets wherever they went. This paper analyzes the impact of a major disaster upon users of illegal drugs and the illegal drug markets in New Orleans and among the diaspora of New Orleans evacuees following Hurricane Katrina. This analysis includes data from criminal justice sources that specify what the drug markets were like before this disaster occurred. This analysis also includes some comparison cities where no disaster occurred, but which help inform the similarities and differences in drug markets in other cities. The data presented also include an initial analysis of ethnographic interview data from over 100 New Orleans Evacuees recruited in New Orleans and Houston.

Dunn M; Degenhardt L. NSW Trends in Ecstasy and Related Drug Markets 2006: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS). NDARC Technical Report No. 277. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, 2007. (57 refs.)

This report presents information on ecstasy and other related drug markets for New South Wales, including methamphetamine, cocaine, GHB and ketamine, LSD, and MDA, assessed by survey. The report outlines trends in the use and associated harms of these drugs, as well as their price, purity and availability. Information is presented on the demographic characteristics of regular ecstasy users, the natural history of ecstasy and accompanying drug use. The majority of users also regularly use alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis. Common risk behaviors are identified, related to route of administration, sexual activity, and driving. Problems attendant to use are discussed: health problems, financial difficulty, relationship problems, and criminal activity. Following a summary conclusion, the report sets forth implications for health policy and harm reduction strategies. There are 135 tables and figures.

Duterte M; Jacinto C; Sales P; Murphy S. What's in a label? Ecstasy sellers' perceptions of pill brands. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 41(1): 27-37, 2009. (45 refs.)

This article presents selected findings from a qualitative study of Ecstasy sellers and their sales practices, knowledge of distribution networks, buyer-seller relationships, and self-reported drug use. In-depth interviews were conducted with 80 men and women who had sold five or more hits of Ecstasy five or more times in the six months prior to the interview. Study participants described their perceptions of the various types of Ecstasy they had distributed or used themselves. The participants had experience with a variety of Ecstasy labels, from the popular "Blue Dolphin" tablets to the powdered form called "Molly." We tracked pill brand mentions on Ecstasy-related websites to compare with interviewees' descriptions of Ecstasy brands. This study examines Ecstasy sellers' ideas about the role of brand names in Ecstasy markets and their relationship to their beliefs about different types of Ecstasy's purity and quality. We demonstrate that considering Ecstasy branding increases our understanding of buyer and seller relationships.

Ebejer KA; Winn J; Carter JF; Sleeman R; Parker J; Korber F. The difference between drug money and a "lifetime's savings"'. Forensic Science International 167(2-3): 94-101, 2007. (18 refs.)

In many countries, monies suspected of being associated with drug trafficking can be seized by the authorities. One of the ways of investigating this association is through the analysis of seized banknotes for traces of controlled drugs. We report three studies which may assist the expert in assessing whether banknotes contaminated with diamorphine are part of the general population of notes in circulation or whether they show unusual contamination patterns which require explanation. Study 1 is based on three plausible contamination scenarios as they may occur during the various stages of an illicit drug transaction and seizure. It shows that notes which have been in direct contact with visible traces of diamorphine show significantly higher contamination to those in more indirect contact with the drug. Study 2 investigates the transfer of diamorphine from one highly contaminated note to other notes in a bundle over a period of 10 weeks with and without agitation. It was found that the total amount of drug transferred was smaller than 6% and no more than 4 out of a bundle of 10 previously clean notes became lightly contaminated. Based on extensive background data, study 3 proposes a probabilistic model to assess whether an observed proportion of diamorphine bearing banknotes is likely to have been contaminated by chance. The model predicts that there is only a 0.3% chance that a bundle of 100 notes from the general banknote population contains more than six contaminated specimens. Jointly, the three studies give useful indications for the spread of contamination throughout a sample and the amounts of heroin which may be expected given plausible contamination scenarios.

Edwards G; Babor T; Darke S; Hall W; Marsden J; Miller P et al. Drug trafficking: Time to abolish the death penalty. (editorial). Addiction 104(8): 1267-1269, 2009. (13 refs.)

Erickson PG; Macdonald S; Hathaway AD. Profiling violent incidents in a drug treatment sample: A tripartite model approach. Journal of Drug Issues 39(3): 741-758, 2009. (22 refs.)

This research focuses on the qualitatively descriptive accounts of drug-related violent incidents drawn from a treatment sample of 571 substance abuse clients in Ontario. Nearly half (n = 269) had experienced at least one violent incident in the past year, and 91% had used one or more substances prior to the most recent episode. The classification of the explicitly drug-related violent events (n = 176), based on Goldstein's tripartite model, is its first application in an adult drug treatment sample. Although respondents were not criminal offenders, and interpersonal violence related to psychopharmacological effects predominated, economic or systemic linkages related to drug scarcity and the drug market were implicated in one fifth of all occurrences. Alcohol and cocaine were the substances most implicated in all three aspects of the model. Since a drug treatment sample is a high-risk group for violence, interventions that raise awareness of potential for violence linked to not only intoxication but also scarcity conflicts and illicit drug market involvement are warranted. Since most violence occurs in the community, such initiatives may benefit those in treatment and serve as an important public health strategy.

Fazey C. International policy on illicit drug trafficking: The formal and informal mechanisms. Journal of Drug Issues 37(4): 755-779, 2007. (45 refs.)

In the last 10 years the world's leading economic powers have driven important changes in international policy on illicit drug trafficking. They have set up and financed semi-formal or informal transnational groups to proactively implement policy on the ground. This is a reaction to the bureaucratic, formal mechanisms of the United Nations and its agencies, where policy is diluted by the need for consensus among 53 member states, plus various regional groupings of other countries. The new groups take a more integrated approach to the problem by going beyond trafficking into countering money laundering and controlling the sale of precursor chemicals, which criminal gangs use to synthesize drugs earlier in the supply chain to reduce the bulk of trafficked materials. The established link between organized transnational crime, drugs, and the financing of terrorism has added impetus to these efforts, but there is still a need for better cooperation on projects and to harmonize the collection of seizure statistics between key international bodies.

Feige C; Miron JA. The opium wars, opium legalization and opium consumption in China. Applied Economics Letters 15(12): 911-913, 2008. (7 refs.)

The effect of drug prohibition on drug consumption is a critical issue in debates over drug policy. One episode that provides information on the consumption-reducing efffect of drug prohibition is the Chinese legalization of opium in 1858. In this paper we examine the impact of China's opium legalization on the quantity and price of British opium exports from India to China during the nineteenth century. We find little evidence that legalization increased exports or decreased price. Thus, the evidence suggests China's opium prohibition had a minimal impact on opium consumption.

Fitzgerald JL. Mapping the experience of drug dealing risk environments: An ethnographic case study. International Journal of Drug Policy 20(3, Special Issue): 261-269, 2009. (20 refs.)

Background: The traditional approach to understanding the economic dimensions of risk environments is to examine the forces that determine the activities of social actors. Drug dealing poses a particular problem for risk environments as dealing and drug dealers are often thought to be out of the scope of harm reduction interventions. However, local level drug dealing can be an important feature of local economies in marginalised communities, and the sharp distinctions between users and dealers may not always hold. Methods: Ethnographic evidence is used to describe how two drug dealers experience risk. Two domestic spaces, the house of a heroin and amphetamine dealer respectively, are used to illustrate the relationships between structural forces, experience and physical space. Results: One key mechanism through which risk environments mediate the relations between structural forces and individuals is through the modification of every day space. Rather than simply being a container for action, space is made through experience. This case study illustrates how two drug dealers orient themselves in space in relation to a complex amalgam of sensations, memories, inscriptions and intentions. Rather than simply being effects of structural oppression, these drug dealers are active participants in the local drug economy. The risk environment and associated economic processes become embodied into the dealers' and their physical environments. Conclusion: Drug dealers shape, and are shaped by, their risk environments. A 'determinants' approach to understanding the economic dimension to drug use risk environments needs to be refined. Community resilience policies Such "neighbourhood renewal" need to take into account the embodied aspects of economic structures in the experience of drug use and drug dealing. The economic relations, the processes that disable the transformation of different forms of capital, the memories and the practices that make drug users, are embodied. Community resilience policies need to bring into focus the embodiment of the economic dimensions of risk environments if they are to successfully reduce harm.

Ford JA; Arrastia MC. Pill-poppers and dopers: A comparison of non-medical prescription drug use and illicit/street drug use among college students. Addictive Behaviors 33(7): 934-941, 2008. (81 refs.)

Data from the 2001 College Alcohol Study, a national sample of U.S. college students, were used to conduct multinomial logistic regression analysis examining correlates of substance use. Students were divided into three groups based on their lifetime substance use: non-users, non-medical prescription drug use only, and illicit/street drug use only. The purpose of this analytic strategy was to examine the similarities/differences in the correlates of non-medical prescription drug use and illicit/street drug use. Findings indicate that race, age, C.P.A., sexual activity, health, binge drinking, marijuana use, social bonding and social learning measures are correlates of non-medical prescription drug use. Correlates of illicit/street drug use include gender, Hispanic ethnicity, sexual activity, binge drinking, marijuana use, social bonding and social learning measures. Finally, the focus of the paper is a comparison of students who report only non-medical prescription drug use to students who report only illicit/street drug use. Findings indicate that gender, race, marital status, sexual activity, marijuana use, and social bonding measures significantly distinguish illicit/street drug use from non-medical prescription drug use. Important implications, limitations, and future research needs were discussed.

Friesendorf C. US Foreign Policy and the War on Drugs: Displacing the Cocaine and Heroin Industry. New York: Routledge, 2007

This book examines the geographic displacement of the illicit drug industry as an unintended consequence of United States foreign policy. To reduce the supply of cocaine and heroin from abroad, the US has relied on coercion against farmers, traffickers and governments, but this has had the effect of exacerbating drug problems world-wide. The author develops and applies a causal mechanism to explain the displacement, analyzing US anti-drug initiatives at different times and in various regions. The findings clearly show that American foreign policy has been a major driving force behind the global spread of the illicit drug industry.

Friman HR. Drug markets and the selective use of violence. Crime, Law & Social Change 52(3): 285-295, 2009. (52 refs.)

Drug markets and violence are often presented as inextricably linked. Yet, the use of organized violence by trafficking networks against each other and against the state is not uniform. Insights into the selective use of violence lie in disputes between crime groups over control of lucrative distribution networks and market share. Insights into the use of violence against the state lie in the efforts by criminal justice personnel to curtail the drug trade and the political goals pursued by trafficking organizations. This article discusses these arguments in the context of cocaine markets and the Americas before turning more extensively to methamphetamine in the USA and especially Japan. The latter one, understudied by scholars, offers a challenging plausibility probe for arguments addressing the selective nature of organized violence in drug markets.

George J; Lenton S. Western Australian Trends in Ecstasy and Related Drug Markets 2006: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS). NDARC Technical Report No. 275. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, 2007. (18 refs.)

This report presents information on ecstasy and other related drug markets for the Western Australian area. Data, gathered by survey, is reported on methamphetamine, cocaine, GHB and ketamine, LSD, and MDA. The report outlines trends in the use and associated harms of these drugs, as well as their price, purity and availability. Information is presented on the demographic characteristics of regular ecstasy users, the natural history of ecstasy and accompanying drug use. The majority of users also regularly use alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis. Common risk behaviors are identified, related to route of administration, sexual activity, and driving. Problems attendant to use are discussed: health problems, financial difficulty, relationship problems, and criminal activity. Following a summary conclusion, the report sets forth implications for health policy and harm reduction strategies. Date is presented in 97 figures and tables.

Goudie AJ; Sumnall HR; Field M; Clayton H; Cole JC. The effects of price and perceived quality on the behavioural economics of alcohol, amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine, and ecstasy purchases. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 89(2/3): 107-115, 2007. (33 refs.)

Behavioural economic models of substance use describe the relationship between changes in unit price and consumption. However, these models rarely take account of the perceived quality (i.e. potency) of controlled drugs. Therefore we investigated the effects of both price and quality on the decision to purchase controlled drugs by polysubstance misusers. Forty current polysubstance misusers (29 males, I I females; mean age 23.8) were recruited into the study. Participants were asked to hypothetically purchase drugs from a price list of alcohol, amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine and ecstasy at different levels of quality and price (i.e. better quality drugs cost more money). The disposable income available for those purchases was systematically varied in order to determine the impact of income on the decision to purchase drugs. Demand for both normal and strong alcohol was income inelastic. Demand for both poor and average quality cannabis and ecstasy was income inelastic, but demand for good quality cannabis and ecstasy was income elastic. The demand for poor quality cocaine was income inelastic, with the demand for both average and good quality cocaine being income elastic. Participants reported too few purchases of amphetamine, which precluded behavioural economic analysis. These results suggest that, like other goods, controlled drugs are purchased based upon the consumer's interpretations of their relative value. Therefore, it is probable that the purchase and subsequent use of controlled drugs by polysubstance misusers will be heavily influenced by the economic environment.

Greenwald MK; Steinmiller CL. Behavioral economic analysis of opioid consumption in heroin-dependent individuals: Effects of alternative reinforcer magnitude and post-session drug supply. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 104(1-2): 84-93, 2009. (70 refs.)

This study investigated the extent to which hydromorphone (HYD) choice and behavioral economic demand were influenced by HYD unit price (UP), alternative money reinforcement magnitude and post-session HYD supply. Heroin-dependent research volunteers (n=13) stabilized on buprenorphine 8 mg/day first sampled two HYD doses (12 and 24 mg IM, labeled Drug A [session 1] and Drug B [session 2]). In each of the final six sessions, volunteers were given access to a 12-trial choice progressive ratio (PR) task and could earn a HYD unit dose (2 mg, fixed) or money ($2 or $4, varied across sessions), administered immediately after the work session. Before the PR task, volunteers were told which HYD supplemental dose (none, Drug A or B) would be available 3 h after receiving the PR-contingent dose. PR-contingent HYD choice significantly decreased when $4 relative to $2 was concurrently available. Information about the post-session HYD supplement moderated this effect: when subjects were told a supplemental dose was available, HYD-seeking behavior decreased when the money alternative was smaller ($2), but this information did not further attenuate HYD choice, which was already low, when the money alternative was higher ($4). HYD demand elasticity was only increased by the $4 relative to $2 alternative without the HYD supplement. In summary, opioid-seeking behavior is influenced by the availability of concurrent non-drug and drug alternatives. These findings show that drug availability and non-drug alternatives interact to modulate drug-seeking behavior.

Grosse RE. Drugs and Money: Laundering Latin America's Cocaine Dollars. Westport CT: Praeger, 2001. (88 book refs.)

This book outlines the process of money laundering and its relationship to the illicit drug trade which is the major impetus. The discussion is organized in three parts. Part I considers the broad terrain of money laundering, as well as providing a primer on the South American drug trade from growing coca in Peru and Bolivia to its refining in Colombia, and transport through Mexico to the United States. This section also reviews money laundering in the context of US. laws and court cases. Part II, consisting of 9 chapters, examines some of the most notable money laundering efforts, from 'simple' efforts such as shipping money in consumer goods to the use of European banks. Part III addresses managerial, technical and policy concerns. An appendix sets forth over 40 recommendations for governments to deal with money laundering.

Guinier D; Hubert N; Chopard JL. Surgical and forensic problems of body-packing. (review). Journal de Chirurgie 144(6): 481-485, 2007. (33 refs.)

Body-packing has increased as a means of illicit drug transportation, particularly since the intensification of customs control and luggage inspection which followed the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. This mode of drug transport may result in intestinal obstruction or systemic intoxication; diagnostic measures are discussed; management may require specific precautions and occasionally surgical intervention. The problem of how to handle and dispose of large quantities of drugs removed from or passed by a patient who may not be under arrest presents specific medicolegal considerations.

Halvaksz JA. Cannabis and fantasies of development: Revaluing relations through land in rural Papua New Guinea. Australian Journal of Anthropology 18(1): 56-71, 2007. (59 refs.)

Over the past decade, marijuana has become a significant element within Papua New Guinea's communities, revealing an important connection to the broader political economy. For young men, fluctuating commodity prices, the intermittent exploitation of mineral wealth and a reluctant tourist economy only gives them a taste for development. Marijuana seems to offer its permanence. Somewhere between the harsh reality of local economic and ecological futures young men near the town of Wau (Morobe Province) imagine themselves as successful entrepreneurs in the emerging drug trade. In particular, I consider how young men imagine the planting of this illicit crop as mediating tensions between acting individually and acting communally. While most have yet to take action on these fantasies, they provide insight into the development aspirations of rural Papua New Guineans. In this paper, I examine these development fantasies as they speak to a broader political economy and transformations of local landscapes throughout rural Pacific communities.

Harrison LD; Erickson PG; Korf DJ; Brochu S; Benschop A. How much for a dime bag? An exploration of youth drug markets. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 90(Supplement 1): S27-S39, 2007. (26 refs.)

Relatively little is known about how youth obtain marijuana and other drugs. The Drugs, Alcohol and Violence International (DAVI) study explored youthful drug markets among samples of school students, detained youth, and school dropouts (ages 14-17 years) in the greater metropolitan areas of Philadelphia, Toronto, Montreal, and Amsterdam. Students frequently reported sharing drugs, either getting them from others or giving them to others for free. Sharing was less common among the more drug-involved detainees and dropouts. Marijuana was typically obtained either outdoors or in a house or apartment. Few youth reported getting marijuana at school. In Amsterdam, where marijuana can be purchased in small quantities in coffeeshops. this was the most common place to get marijuana, even though 18 is the legal age for purchase. Alcohol was also most likely to be obtained in stores or restaurants across all the sites, even though none were of legal age except those in Amsterdam age 16 or older. Youth most often reported purchasing marijuana in nickel, dime or other small bags, which are not standardized units. The exception again was Amsterdam, where youth most often reported quantities in grams or joints, which is how it is sold in coffeeshops. The lack of standardization of units makes economic cost estimates suspect. Even standardized units such as alcohol present problems since youth report a wide range of 'typical purchases.' Survey data can. however, more aptly describe drug market characteristics such as general location of purchase, and relationship with the seller.

Hassanian-Moghaddam H; Abolmasoumi Z. Consequence of body packing of illicit drugs. Archives of Iranian Medicine 10(1): 20-23, 2007. (12 refs.)

Background: During the last decade, increased rates of drug traffic have led the smugglers to use various methods. One of these methods of illicit drug smuggling is body packing. Smuggling by intra-abdominal concealment is called "body packing". In this research, mortality rate was investigated due to body packing in Tehran. Methods: A descriptive study (case series) was designed on all corpses referred to the Forensic Medicine Organization of Tehran between April 1999 - December 2000. Demographic data such as sex, age, marital status, addiction, job, education level, type of opioid and the weight, number of packets, and results of blood and urine morphine tests by thin-layer chromatographic method were investigated. Results: Continental system of law is used in Iran and 0.06% of the referred corpses to Forensic Medicine Organization of Tehran were body packers. There were 12 cases, all of them were men. The mean age of body packers was 43 years (range 20 - 62). The minimum weight of the packets was 20 g and the maximum weight was 1400 g (mean = 501 g). The minimum number of the packets was one and the maximum number of the packets was 48. Twenty five percent of the corps were putrefied and one corpse was mummified. None of the body packers had academic education nor were employed. Nine of them lived in cities. Twenty five percent of them were intravenous addicts. The corpses were found mostly in terminals (17%), roads (58%), and cities (25%). Conclusion: Hospitalital physicians may neglect this type of gastrointestinal foreign body if they are not aware of the body packer syndrome. Body packing should be suspected in anyone with signs of drug-induced toxic effects after a recent arrival on city terminals or when there is no history of recreational drug use.

Hoover V; Marlowe DB; Patapis NS; Festinger DS; Forman RF. Internet access to Salvia divinorum: Implications for policy, prevention, and treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 35(1): 22-27, 2008. (24 refs.)

This study determined the degree to which Salvia divinorum, a potent hallucinogenic drug that is legal in most U.S. jurisdictions, is being proffered for sale over the Internet and how it is being characterized on popular Web sites. Search results revealed that between one half and two thirds (58%) of the Web sites either offered to sell S. divinorum or linked to other Web sites offering to sell the drug and that more than three quarters (78%) of the Web sites advocated for its use. Many of the statements issued on the Web sites were erroneous or falsely interpreted the absence of scientific data on the possible side effects of S. divinorum as evidence that no side effect exists. The portrayal and availability of S. divinorum on the Internet are similar to those of other illicit and prescription drugs of abuse. However, much less is known about the short- and long-term effects of this novel drug. Consequently, there is little basis to contradict the many Web sites that encourage its use. Implications for drug policy, prevention, and treatment are discussed.

Inciardi JA; Surratt HL; Kurtz SP; Cicero TJ. Mechanisms of prescription drug diversion among drug-involved club- and street-based populations. Pain Medicine 8(2): 171-183, 2007. (88 refs.)

Objective. Prescription drug diversion involves the unlawful channeling of regulated pharmaceuticals from legal sources to the illicit marketplace, and can occur along all points in the drug delivery process, from the original manufacturing site to the wholesale distributor, the physician's office, the retail pharmacy, or the patient. However, empirical data on diversion are limited. Method. In an attempt to develop a better understanding of how specific drug-using populations are diverting prescription opioids and other medications, or obtaining controlled drugs that have already been diverted, qualitative interviews and focus group data were collected on four separate populations of prescription drug abusers in Miami, Florida-club drug users, street-based illicit drug users, methadone maintenance patients, and HIV positive individuals who abuse and/or divert drugs. Results. Sources of abused prescription drugs cited by focus group participants were extremely diverse, including their physicians and pharmacists; parents and relatives; "doctor shopping"; leftover supplies following an illness or injury; personal visits to Mexico, South America and the Caribbean; prescriptions intended for the treatment of mental illness; direct sales on the street and in nightclubs; pharmacy and hospital theft; through friends or acquaintances; under-the-door apartment flyers advertising telephone numbers to call; and "stealing from grandma's medicine cabinet." Conclusion. While doctor shoppers, physicians and the Internet receive much of the attention regarding diversion, the data reported in this paper suggest that there are numerous active street markets involving patients, Medicaid recipients and pharmacies as well. In addition, there are other data which suggest that the contributions of residential burglaries, pharmacy robberies and thefts, and "sneak thefts" to the diversion problem may be understated.

Isralowitz R; Reznik A. Gender differences among Israeli adolescents in residential drug treatment. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 14(2): 167-172, 2007. (17 refs.)

Aims: The use of licit and illicit drugs is considered to be primarily a male problem. Numerous studies, however, question the extent of gender differences. This article reports on last 30 day drug use and related problem behaviour among male and female youth prior to residential treatment. Methods: Self-report data were collected from 95 male and female adolescents, age 13 to 18 years, at intake for treatment. Findings: Gender was not a factor differentiating the youth for cigarette, alcohol, cannabis, ecstasy, inhalant, and amphetamine use. Males were more likely to report hashish use. Females, however, were more likely to report use of prescription drugs, cocaine and heroin. No gender differences were found for binge drinking, driving a car after drinking or being a passenger in a car after the driver had been drinking, selling drugs, deterioration of relations with friends and family, gambling, taking loans or using personal money to buy drugs. Conclusion: Drug use and related behaviour among adolescents in residential treatment does not appear to be predominately a male problem. Further research is needed to understand the role of gender status in relation to what drugs are used and how for prevention, treatment and public health purposes.

Jacinto C; Duterte M; Sales P; Murphy S. Maximising the highs and minimising the lows: Harm reduction guidance within ecstasy distribution networks. International Journal of Drug Policy 19(5, Special Issue): 393-400, 2008. (40 refs.)

Background: Little is known about how users build and share knowledge concerning the highs and lows of Ecstasy and the role that Ecstasy sellers play in the exchange of this information. Methods: These findings are based on a National Institute on Drug Abuse-funded project, "An Exploratory Study of Ecstasy Distribution," conducted between 2003 and 2006. We completed in-depth interviews with 120 men and women in the San Francisco Bay Area who had sold 5 or more doses 5 or more times in the 6 months prior to the interview. The research focused on buyer-seller relationships and the influence of these relationships on users' health. Results: Users constructed harm reduction strategies in attempts to maximise the Ecstasy high and minimise the risks. The social context of Ecstasy use allowed for the exchange of harm reduction information and advice on how to maximise the pleasurable aspects of Ecstasy. Some participants served as "guides" to ensure that their customers had safe and enjoyable experiences while using Ecstasy. Conclusion: These findings suggest that Ecstasy sellers are important points of intervention for the dissemination of harm reduction information as friendship networks were the primary link in creating awareness of safer Ecstasy use.

Jenkinson R; Quinn B. Victorian Drug Trends 2006: Findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS). NDARC Technical Report No. 274. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, 2007. (40 refs.)

Jenkot R. "cooks are like gods": hierarchies in methamphetamine-producing groups. Deviant Behavior 29(8): 667-689, 2008. (24 refs.)

This article uses findings from a qualitative study of female methamphetamine users, dealers, and producers in Missouri and Arkansas. Using in-depth interviews with 31 incarcerated women, the study explores their experiences with methamphetamine, focusing on the experiences of 18 methamphetamine producers, or "cooks.'' Through their experiences, this study provides an insight into the hierarchies that exist within methamphetamine-producing groups. The hierarchy moves from "simple users'' at the bottom, to "dope ho's,'' "shoppers,'' "gas men/juicers,'' and "cooks'' at the top of the methamphetamine hierarchy. Understanding the hierarchy within methamphetamine-producing groups can aid us in understanding how new members are added to the group, existing members leave, and new groups form from the existing group. In-group mobility is also examined with regard to group solidarity and reintegration post confinement. Because all of the participants in this study were women the interaction between status and gender within the methamphetamine-producing group is also discussed.

Jiggens J. Australian heroin seizures and the causes of the 2001 heroin shortage. (editorial). International Journal of Drug Policy 19(4): 273-278, 2008. (24 refs.)

This paper uses Australian heroin seizure data, along with estimates of the size of the Australian heroin market to evaluate the impact of drug law enforcement on the 2001 Australian heroin shortage from the percentage of the market seized. It also critically examines international heroin production trends and published reports on the causes of the Australian heroin shortage. Its conclusion is that previous studies may have overstated the success of drug law enforcement and that the most likely explanation for Australia's 2001 heroin shortage was a significant decline in heroin production world-wide, due to a general move away from heroin production in the countries of Southeast Asia and the prohibition on opium growing by the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.

Jiggens J. The Australian heroin bubble.(editorial). International Journal of Drug Policy 19(4): 295-296, 2008. (1 refs.)

Johnson BD; Golub A. The potential for accurately measuring behavioral and economic dimensions of consumption, prices, and markets for illegal drugs. (review). Drug and Alcohol Dependence 90(Supplement 1): S16-S26, 2007. (74 refs.)

There are numerous analytic and methodological limitations to current measures of drug market activity. This paper explores the structure of markets and individual user behavior to provide an integrated understanding of behavioral and economic (and market) aspects of illegal drug use with an aim toward developing improved procedures for measurement. This involves understanding the social processes that structure illegal distribution networks and drug users' interactions with them. These networks are where and how social behaviors, prices, and markets for illegal drugs intersect. Our focus is upon getting an up close measurement of these activities. Building better measures of consumption behaviors necessitates building better rapport with subjects than typically achieved with one-time surveys in order to overcome withholding and underreporting and to get a comprehensive understanding of the processes involved. This can be achieved through repeated interviews and observations of behaviors. This paper also describes analytic advances that could be adopted to direct this inquiry including behavioral templates, and insights into the economic valuation of labor inputs and cash expenditures for various illegal drugs. Additionally, the paper makes recommendations to funding organizations for developing the mechanisms that would support behavioral scientists to weigh specimens and to collect small samples for laboratory analysis-by providing protection from the potential for arrest. The primary focus is upon U.S. markets. The implications for other countries are discussed.

Jordan MT; Bryant SM; Aks SE; Wahl M. A five-year review of the medical outcome of heroin mody stuffers. Journal of Emergency Medicine 36(3): 250-256, 2009. (43 refs.)

The medical outcome of heroin body stuffers has rarely been described. This study was performed to illustrate the clinical course of heroin body stuffers. A retrospective chart analysis was performed on all cases of heroin body stuffers received by a metropolitan poison control center from 2000-2004. We identified 65 heroin body stuffers. Sixty-nine percent were men with a mean age of 35 years. The stated quantity of heroin containers ingested ranged from I to 30, with 65% reported as being wrapped in plastic. Six patients (9.2%) developed symptoms of opiate intoxication. All symptoms began within an hour after the ingestion. Three patients (4.6%) needed naloxone. The mean length of observation was 24 h. Opiate intoxication from heroin stuffing is uncommon. Those patients that developed symptoms did so early in their course. These data indicate a benign clinical course in most heroin body stuffers.

Kaye K. Sex and the unspoken in male street prostitution. Journal of Homosexuality 53(1-2): 37-73, 2007. (41 refs.)

Although the overwhelming majority of male prostitutes work through agencies or by placing their own ads, most studies of male prostitution focus upon young men who work on the street. Remarkably, these studies seldom identify the dynamics of poverty and street-level violence as important elements of their examination. Investigations of male sex work -- few though they are -- focus almost exclusively upon sexual aspects of "the life." Despite the importance of these networks in shaping the contours of street life, and often in enabling one's very survival, the primary research focus has remained on questions of sexual identity, sexual practices with clients, and sexual abuse as a causative factor. Meanwhile, studies that do examine the dynamics of male street life typically do not examine questions of prostitution or other issues related to sexuality. A dominant theme within this literature consists of specifying the social mores of the most aggressive and socially problematic participants within street society, particularly gang members and drug dealers. The dissimilar nature of these images relates directly to the political projects of the dominant culture, which, in a very general way, seeks to "rescue" (reintegrate) deviant white youth, while controlling and excluding deviant youth of color. The political aim of reintegrating runaways into middle-class trajectories has the effect of authorizing certain discourses regarding their behavior on the streets, while marginalizing or completely disallowing others. This article seeks to examine and challenge these trends of representation.

Kaza S; Xu J; Marshall B; Chen HC. Topological analysis of criminal activity networks: Enhancing transportation security. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems 10(1): 83-91, 2009. (30 refs.)

The security of border and transportation systems is a critical component of the national strategy for homeland security. The security concerns at the border are not independent of law enforcement in border-area jurisdictions because the information known by local law enforcement agencies may provide valuable leads that are useful for securing the border and transportation infrastructure. The combined analysis of law enforcement information and data generated by vehicle license plate readers at international borders can be used to identify suspicious vehicles and people at ports of entry. This not only generates better quality leads for border 'protection agents but may also serve to reduce wait times for commerce, vehicles, and people as they cross the border. This paper explores the use of criminal activity networks (CANS) to analyze information from law enforcement and other sources to provide value for transportation and border security. We analyze the topological characteristics of CAN of individuals and vehicles in a multiple jurisdiction scenario. The advantages of exploring the relationships of individuals and vehicles are shown. We find that large narcotic networks are small world with short average path lengths ranging from 4.5 to 8.5 and have scale-free degree distributions with power law exponents of 0.85-1.3. In addition, we find that utilizing information from multiple jurisdictions provides higher quality leads by reducing the average shortest-path lengths. The inclusion of vehicular relationships and border-crossing information generates more investigative leads that can aid in securing the border and transportation infrastructure.

Kerr T; Small W; Johnston C; Li K; Montaner JSG; Wood E. Characteristics of injection drug users who participate in drug dealing: Implications for drug policy. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 40(2): 147-152, 2008. (27 refs.)

So-called "balanced" drug policy couples enforcement initiatives targeting drug dealers with health-focused interventions serving addicted individuals. There are few evaluations of this approach, and little is known about how these two populations may overlap. We evaluated factors associated with drug dealing among injection drug users (IDUs) in Vancouver, Canada, and examined self-reported drug-dealing roles and reasons for dealing. Among 412 IDUs seen from March through December 2005, 68 (17%) had dealt drugs during the previous six months. Variables independently associated with drug dealing included: recent incarceration (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 2.9; 95%CI: 1.4 - 6.0); frequent heroin injection (AOR = 2.5; 95%CI: 1.4 - 4.6); frequent cocaine injection (AOR = 2.0; 95%CI: 1.1 - 3.8); and recent overdose (AOR = 2.7; 95 %CI: 1.0 - 7.3). The most common drug-dealing roles were direct selling (82%), middling (35%), and steering (19%), while the most common reasons for dealing included obtaining drugs (49%) and money (36%). Drug dealing among IDUs was predicted by several markers of higher intensity addiction, and drug-dealing IDUs tended to occupy the most dangerous positions in the drug-dealing hierarchy. These findings suggest that elements of "balanced" drug policies may undermine each other and indicate the need for alternative interventions.

Kimber J; Dolan K. Shooting gallery operation in the context of establishing a medically supervised injecting center: Sydney, Australia. Journal of Urban Health 84(2): 255-266, 2007. (46 refs.)

Shooting galleries (shooting galleries) are illicit off-street spaces close to drug markets used for drug injection. Supervised injecting facilities (supervised infecting facilities) are low threshold health services where injecting drug users (IDUs) can inject pre-obtained drugs under supervision. This study describes SG use in Kings Cross, Sydney before and after the opening of the Sydney Medically Supervised Injecting Centre (MSIC), Australia's first SIF. Operational and environmental characteristics of shooting galleries, reasons for SG use, and willingness to use MSIC were also examined. An exploratory survey of SG users (n = 31), interviews with SG users (n = 17), and drug workers (n = 8), and counts of used needles routinely collected from shooting galleries (6 months before and after MSIC) and visits to the MSIC (6 months after MSIC) were triangulated. We found five shooting galleries operated during the study period. Key operational characteristics were 24-h operation, AUS$10 entry fee, 30-min time limit, and dual use for sex work. Key reasons for SG use were to avoid police, a preference not to inject in public, and assistance from SG operators in case of overdose. SG users reported high levels of willingness to use the MSIC. The number of used needles collected from shooting galleries decreased by 69% (41,819 vs. 12,935) in the 6 months after MSIC opened, while MSIC visits increased incrementally. We conclude that injections were transferred from shooting galleries to the MSIC, but shooting galleries continued to accommodate injections and harm reduction outreach should be maintained.

Ko BJ; Suh S; Suh YJ; In MK; Kim SH. The impurity characteristics of methamphetamine synthesized by Emde and Nagai method. Forensic Science International 170(2/3, Special Issue): 142-147, 2007. (15 refs.)

Impurity profiling and classification of seized methamphetamine may play an important role in the interpretation of analytical results, the determination of the synthetic method employed, and the criminal investigations of drug traffic routes. Our study is focused on classifying seized methamphetamine samples according to the groups sorted by the types and quantities of impurities present in illicit methamphetamine samples. The samples (100 mg) were dissolved in 2 mL of potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), extracted with 200 mu L of ethyl acetate under basic condition, and then analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) with a DB-1 capillary column (30 m x 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 mu m). Five impurities are used as criteria for the classification of seized methamphetamine samples by Emde and Nagai method. A total of fifty-two samples of seized methamphetamine were analyzed by GC-MS and classified by five organic impurities, and then sorted into four groups, which are Nagai type, Emde Type, Undetermined I type, and Undetermined 11 type.

Koper C; van den Boom C; Wiarda W; Schrader M; de Joode P; van der Peijl G et al. Elemental analysis of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): A tool to determine the synthesis method and trace links. Forensic Science International 171(2/3 special issue): 171-179, 2007. (22 refs.)

The elemental composition of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) powders and tablets was determined. The objective was the identification of the synthesis method and application of the elemental profile in comparative analysis. The developed analytical method comprised the digestion of a sample followed by quantitative analysis with inductive coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and inductive coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). The sample collection consisted of a unique set of MDMA powders (57) from illicit production sites and MDMA tablets (97) taken from large seizures (over 500 tablets) in the Netherlands. The production method of MDMA could be determined for 89 of the 97 tablets. In 84 cases reductive amination using Pt as the catalyst was used, in four cases reductive amination using NaBH4 or a similar reducing agent was employed and one mixed sample (Pt and 13) was found. None of the MDMA tablets were assigned to the aluminium amalgam method. Using the elemental profile, 13 links were identified within the 97 MDMA tablets using cluster analysis based on Pearson correlations. Of these links 10 were corroborated by additional analyses.

Latypov A. Understanding post 9/11 drug control policy and politics in Central Asia. (editorial). International Journal of Drug Policy 20(5): 387-391, 2009. (36 refs.)

This paper exposes contemporary drug policy challenges in Central Asia by focusing on a single point in the history of drug control, in a single region of the global war against drugs and terrorism, and on one agency whose mission is to help make the world safer from crime, drugs and terrorism. By looking closely at the post 9/11 security-oriented donor priorities, I conclude that, in Central Asia, the rhetoric of the taking a more 'balanced approach' to drug policy is bankrupt. When enacted by the national law enforcement agencies in the Central Asian republics, the 'Drug Free' aspirational goal is driving the HIV epidemic among IDUs. The face-saving 'containment' thesis does not reflect the drug situation in this region but rather the failure to adopt an evidence-based approach. The harm reduction agenda continues to face many challenges including resistance to substitution treatment, the harm from drug treatment, from poorly designed drug prevention programmes and from repressive counter-narcotics policies and practices.

Lazarou EE. Manufacturing methamphetamine: Medical-psychiatric complications of an illegal act. Journal of Psychiatric Practice 14(4): 241-245, 2008. (16 refs.)

This is a case study of young adult woman with hyperthyroidism induced by iodinemia (iodine toxicity) caused by methamphetamine manufacture. It is used to document a number of important issues: morbidity associated with methamphetamine production, the dilemmas asssociated with providing care in a correctional setting, and the need to conduct a thorough assessment so as not to attribute inappropriately all psychiatric symptoms to recent drug use.

Lee JS; Yang WK; Han EY; Lee SY; Park YH; Lim MA et al. Monitoring precursor chemicals of methamphetamine through enantiomer profiling. Forensic Science International 173(1): 68-72, 2007. (24 refs.)

Smuggling of methamphetamine is affected by enforced regulation and international situation, resulting in changes of precursors and synthetic methods used. Enantiomer ratio of methamphetamine can provide information concerning its precursor and synthetic method. This information is useful for the prevention of smuggling methamphetamine and its precursor, and resultant reduction of methamphetamine abuse. In the present study, we investigated on the enantiomer ratios of 433 crystalline methamphetamine samples seized in Korea from 1994 to 2005. Excluding 17 samples of low purity, 416 samples were used for enantiomer profiling. The methamphetamine samples were derivatized with (S)-(+)-alpha-methoxy-alpha-(trifluoromethyl)phenylacetyl chloride ((S)-(+)-MTPAC1), and the derivatives were analyzed by GCMS in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. The enantiomer ratios of the samples were calculated from the standard calibration curves of each enantiomer, both of which showed good linearity in the range of 0-1.2 mu g. Most of the seizures were pure S(+)-enantiomer, but 21% (95 of 416 samples) contained R(-)-enantiomer above 1%. They began to appear from 1997, and increased continuously up to 50% in the year 2005 (55 of I I I samples). From this study, we could find out that alternative precursors have been used recently for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine seized in Korea.

Levy R; Zelkowicz A. Efficiency evaluation of a police operation to fight the drug plague: Distribution unit weight as an objective index. Journal of Forensic Sciences 52(4): 909-912, 2007. (6 refs.)

Lod, a city near Tel-Aviv, is considered the main drug distribution center in Israel. A major police undercover operation in Lod, lasting close to a year, was terminated in May 2003. The success or failure of such an operation is frequently measured by the number of arrests made, the hierarchical level of the dealers arrested, the number of drug stations closed down, and the decrease in heroin seizures following the operation. In this work we suggest using an additional parameter, which has a scientific, objective basis, namely, comparing the changes in the average user weight unit ("dose") before and after the operation. We found that prior to the operation the average weight per unit was 1.1 g. Three months after the operation terminated the average weight per unit had decreased to 0.8 g and remained there for at least 4 months before rising again.

Levy R; Zelkowicz A; Abu E; Ravreby MD. "Life expectancy" of "ecstasy" tablets in Israel in the years 2001-2003. Forensic Science International 167(1): 22-29, 2007. (12 refs.)

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) tablets known as "ecstasy" became a very popular drug amongst Israeli youth in the last decade. The ecstasy tablets have a simple design impressed on them (logos) making it relatively easy to distinguish between various logos. The life expectancy of ecstasy tablet logos, defined as the period between the first seizure by the police of a certain logo until the last seizure of the same logo, was monitored during the years 2001-2003. During this time interval, 58 different tablet logos were seized. A total of 26 logos, defined as common logos with at least 10 independent seizures, were observed. At any given time interval during this period, 8-10 common logos were found with an average life expectancy of approximately 9 months. Five of the observed 26 common logos were defined as the most common logos that appeared in at least 200 independent seizures each. Plots of the number of seizures and number of tablets seized as a function of time are presented and discussed as well as explanations for the high turnover rate of any given logo.

Lippert S; Schumacher C. Hopping on the methadone bus. Journal of Health Economics 28(3): 728-736, 2009. (24 refs.)

This paper investigates the impact of a 'free drug program' on the market equilibrium of drugs. We introduce a screening model of the hard drug market in which dealers use payment and punishment options to screen between high and low risk users. We show that, if a free drug program selects sufficiently many high-risk drug users, the pure-strategy separating market equilibrium ceases to exist and a symmetric mixed-strategy equilibrium results, in which drug users derive a higher expected utility. This encourages new drug users to enter the market. The novelty of the paper is the transmission mechanism for this effect, which is via the influence on market price.

Lovenheim MF. How far to the border?: The extent and impact of cross-border casual cigarette smuggling. National Tax Journal 61(1): 7-33, 2008. (29 refs.)

This paper uses data on cigarette consumption in the Current Population Survey Tobacco Supplements to estimate cigarette demand models that incorporate the decision of whether to smuggle cigarettes across a lower-price border. I find demand elasticities with respect to the home state price are indistinguishable from zero on average and vary significantly with the distance individuals live to a lower-price border. However, when smuggling incentives are eradicated, the price elasticity is negative but still inelastic. I also estimate between 13 and 25 percent of consumers purchase cigarettes in border localities. The central implication of this study is cross-border smuggling confounds many of the potential health and revenue gains from cigarette taxation.

Lum C. The geography of drug activity and violence: Analyzing spatial relationships of non-homogenous crime event types. Substance Use & Misuse 43(2): 179-201, 2008. (71 refs.)

The pervasiveness of interest regarding the theme of a relationship between street-level drug activity and violence has been reflected throughout criminal justice research, policy, and practice as well as in public opinion. Most research has focused on the connection between the two at the individual level. This study extends previous research by examining the place-based relationship between drugs and violence. To do so, this project employs three spatial statistical approaches-measures of spatial intensity/density, measures of spatial dependence for drugs and violence separately, and a modified spatial dependence approach for non-homogenous populations to explore the relationship between drug activity and violence. The findings indicate that while drugs and violence often exhibit overlapping spatial patterns, important variations exist in the spatial relationship between the two.

Macdonald D. Drugs in Afghanistan: Opium, Outlaws and Scorpion Tales. London: Pluto Press, 2007

Afghanistan's poppy fields produce more heroin than all other countries combined. Most accounts of the drugs trade concentrate on the impact of trafficking on the West. Yet the truth is that drug addiction is also a problem within Afghanistan. This book explores the devastating impact that the drugs trade has had on the Afghan people. The author was a drug advisor to the UN and the Ministry of Counter Narcotics in Afghanistan for several years. This book separates the facts from the myths surrounding the cultivation, production and consumption of drugs, providing a detailed analysis of the history of drug use within the country, and examines the impact of over 25 years of continuous war and conflict, showing how continuing poverty and instability has led to an increase in drug consumption. He considers the recent rise in the use of pharmaceutical drugs, resulting in dangerous chemical cocktails. The author also analyses the effect of Afghanistan's drug trade on neighbouring countries.

Maher L; Hudson SL. Women in the drug economy: A metasynthesis of the qualitative literature. Journal of Drug Issues 37(4): 805-826, 2007. (52 refs.)

This paper aims to review and examine the qualitative research literature on women in the illicit drug economy and to identify and integrate key themes using the technique of qualitative metasynthesis. A search of citation lists and online bibliographic databases identified a total of 36 studies, 15 of which met the inclusion criteria of generating findings in relation to female participation using qualitative or ethnographic research methods. Results suggest that the drug economy is a gender-stratified labor market and that while women draw on a diverse range of economic and social resources, including informal sector networks such as those involved in sex work, family, and community and welfare networks, most women in most drug markets remain confined to low-level and marginal roles.

Maher L; Li J; Jalaludin B; Wand H; Jayasuriya R; Dixon D et al. Impact of a reduction in heroin availability on patterns of drug use, risk behaviour and incidence of hepatitis C virus infection in injecting drug users in New South Wales, Australia. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 89(2/3): 244-250, 2007. (59 refs.)

In early 2001, Australia experienced a sudden and dramatic reduction in the availability of heroin. Research examining the impact of the reduction on drug-related harms has yielded a conflicting picture. The current study uses data from a prospective cohort study of anti-HCV negative injecting drug users (IDU) (n = 368) to examine patterns of injecting drug use, risk behaviours and HCV incidence before and after the reduction. The proportion of participants mainly injecting heroin declined sharply from 74% to 47% after the onset of the reduction and continued throughout 2001. There was marked shift to other drugs, mainly cocaine and amphetamine. Cocaine injectors had the highest risk profile and the highest incidence of HCV (82.6 per 100 person years, 95% CI 52.0-131.0). While HCV seroconversions increased by year, this increase was not statistically significant. We observed a reduction in heroin injection and a concomitant increase in cocaine injection and a significant association between cocaine injection and incident HCV infection during a period of reduced heroin availability. Results suggest that attempts to suppress drug markets by manipulating availability may result in collateral damage in the form of drug-related harms, indicating a need for more sophisticated understandings of the potential trade-offs involved in attempting to suppress the supply of illicit drugs.

Manzoni P; Fischer B; Rehm J. Local drug-crime dynamics in a Canadian multi-site sample of untreated opioid users. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice 49(3): 341-373, 2007. (84 refs.)

This multi-site study analysed self-reported involvement in property crime, drug dealing, and sex work, across five Canadian cities, among a sample of 677 illicit opioid and other drug users outside of treatment. First, we assessed drug-use patterns and the extent of illegal income-generating behaviour for each city. We then analysed factors and city interactions contributing to engagement in the respective criminal activities, including drug-use patterns, socio-economic characteristics, and other illegal activities. With this approach we explored city-specific patterns of crime prediction; thus we identified local drug-crime associations. The study sample was recruited by outreach and snowball methods and was assessed by standardized study protocols. Findings revealed substantial differences among the cities regarding both the extent and frequency of illegal activities. In regard to local differences, multiple logistic regression models revealed that crack use was strongly associated with property crime in Toronto, while cocaine use was strongly related with sex work in Montreal and Quebec City. This evidence points to local dynamics of drug cultures that are related to specific criminal activities. Implications for further research and intervention efforts are discussed.

Marsden J; Farrell M; Bradbury C; Dale-Perera A; Eastwood B; Roxburgh M et al. Development of the treatment outcomes profile. Addiction 103(9): 1450-1460, 2008. (58 refs.)

Aim: To develop the Treatment Outcomes Profile (TOP), a new instrument for monitoring substance misuse treatment. Design: Prospective cohort, psychometric evaluation with 7-day retest and 1-month follow-up to assess inter-rater reliability, concurrent, discriminant and construct validity, and change sensitivity. Participants: A sample of 1021 service users, aged 16-62 years. Recruitment from 63 treatment agencies in England, collectively providing opioid substitution treatment, psychosocial interventions, in-patient detoxification and residential rehabilitation. Measurements Thirty-eight frequency, rating scale and period prevalence measures, with 28-day recall, across substance use, health, crime and social functioning domains, administered as personal interview by 163 treatment keyworkers. Findings: Twenty outcome measures met inter-rater reliability criteria: days used alcohol, opioids, crack cocaine, cocaine powder, amphetamines, cannabis and one other named substance; days injected and period prevalence of direct or indirect needle/syringe sharing; subjective rating of physical and psychological health; days committed shop theft and drug selling, period prevalence of vehicle, property, fraud/forgery and assault/violence offences; rating of quality of life; days worked and attended for education/training; and period prevalence of acute housing problems and risk of eviction. Intraclass correlation coefficients for scale measures and Cohen's kappa for dichotomous measures reached or exceeded 0.75 and 0.61, respectively. There were satisfactory validity assessments and change sensitivity of scale items judged by effect size and smallest detectable difference. The TOP clinical tool contains an additional 10 items for individual treatment planning and review. Conclusions The TOP is a reliable and valid 20-item instrument for treatment outcomes monitoring.

Mcketin R. Methamphetamine precursor regulation: Are we controlling or diverting the drug problem? (editorial). Addiction 103(4): 521-523, 2008. (19 refs.)

Mcketin R. The Holy Grail of supply control: Have we found the evidence? Addiction 104(3): 455-456, 2009. (7 refs.)

This commentary addresses an article by Cunningham et al. that show that precursor regulations have an impact on the retail market for drugs. It addresses the unintended consequences of such regulation

Mcketin R; Kozel N; Douglas J; Ali R; Vicknasingam B; Lund J. The rise of methamphetamine in southeast and East Asia. Drug and Alcohol Review 27(3): 220-228, 2008. (60 refs.)

Introduction and Aims. Southeast and East Asia has become a global hub for methamphetamine production and trafficking over the past decade. This paper describes the rise of methamphetamine supply and to what extent use of the drug is occurring in the region. Method and Design. The current review uses data collected through the Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP) and other available sources to analyse retrospectively methamphetamine trends within Southeast and East Asia. Results. Southeast and East Asia has experienced a methamphetamine epidemic in the past decade which began around 1997 and peaked in 2000-2001. While the situation has since stabilised in many countries, methamphetamine trafficking and use are still increasing in parts of the Mekong region and there is evidence of large-scale manufacture in Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. Methamphetamine is typically smoked or ingested, but injection of the drug is apparent. Conclusion. While the peak of the methamphetamine epidemic has passed in parts of Southeast and East Asia, attention is needed to minimise the potential consequences of spreading methamphetamine production, trafficking and use in the Mekong region and in the peninsular and archipelago of Southeast Asia.

McLennan JD; Bordin I; Bennett K; Rigato F; Brinkerhoff M. Trafficking among youth in conflict with the law in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 43(10): 816-823, 2008. (30 refs.)

Background: Engagement in drug trafficking may place a child or youth at risk for exposure to severe violence, drug abuse, and death. However, little is know about the nature of youth involvement in drug trafficking. The purpose of this study is to describe drug trafficking behaviour of delinquent youth and identify adverse experiences as potential predictors of trafficking. Methods Cross-sectional sample of youth (12-17 years of age) incarcerated in detention facilities for delinquent or criminal acts in Sao Paulo City, Brazil. Structured face-to-face interviews completed with 325 youth (289 boys, 36 girls). Results Approximately half of the boys and girls in this sample have had at least some role in drug trafficking prior to incarceration. Though youth who had engaged in drug trafficking activities did not differ on basic socio-demographic variables, they were more likely to have been exposed to a number of adverse experiences. Beyond heavy substance use, no longer attending school, gang involvement, witnessing violence, and easier access to guns, drugs and alcohol remained significantly related to trafficking involvement in the final regression model. Girls experienced a very similar pattern of adverse exposures as boys. Conclusion: Special efforts may be required for rehabilitation of youth who engage in drug trafficking. Potential targets may include keeping or re-engaging delinquent youth in school for longer periods of time and reducing youth exposure to violence in poor urban communities.

Mionel O. The drug geopolitics in South America. Metalurgia International 13(6): 71-75, 2008. (7 refs.)

This article wants to present some doubts concerning the drugs geo-politic in South America. The most interesting examples are Colombia, Peru and Bolivia; Colombia is the country with the largest illicit coca growing area and cocaine production in the word, in Peru grow the most solids coca fields and Bolivia is very important for the seizure of illicit laboratories.

Miovsky M. Changing patterns of drug use in the Czech Republic during the post-communist era: A qualitative study. Journal of Drug Issues 37(1): 73-102, 2007. (51 refs.)

The author carried out a reconstruction of the development of the Czech Republic's drug scene on the basis of the results of key research studies that made use of qualitative methods; he also utilized a multilayer timeline according to target groups and socio-historical perspectives. The last decade of the 20th century was a period in which the Czech drug scene underwent a radical transformation, both in problem drug use (see the definition in the editorial) and recreational use of illicit drugs. The original "hard core" groups were usually comprised of individuals who shared close personal relationships. A system of home production and self-supply dominated the market, and this system was not very organized or hierarchical. The entire drug scene opened up in the course of the 1990s and started to "move" and communicate markedly, both internally and externally. A stabilization of prices, purity, and availability of drugs, as well as the relationships and rules of the black market, was characteristic of the second half of the 1990s. The field of recreational use (of cannabis and the so-called "recreational" drugs in particular) went through a different development during this period, when other changes that deepened the commercial nature of the market took place.

Moros J; Galipienso N; Vilches R; Garrigues S; de la Guardia M. Nondestructive direct determination of heroin in seized illicit street drugs by diffuse reflectance near-infrared spectroscopy. Analytical Chemistry 80(19): 7257-7265, 2008. (24 refs.)

A new method has been developed for the fast and nondestructive direct determination of heroin in seized street illicit drugs using partial least-squares regression analysis of diffuse reflectance near-infrared spectra. Data were obtained from untreated samples placed in standard glass chromatography vials. A heterogeneous population of 31 samples, previously analyzed by a reference method, was employed to build the calibration model and to have a separated validation set. Based on the use of zero-order data for a calibration set of 21 samples, after standard normal variate and quadratic linear removed baseline correction (detrending), in the wavelength range from 1111 to 1647 nm, 8 PLS factors were enough to obtain a root-mean-square error of prediction of 1.3% w/w, with a quality coefficient of 10% for the estimation of the accuracy error in the prediction of heroin concentration in unknown samples and a residual predictive deviation of 5.4.

Mottier N. Drug gangs and politics in Ciudad Juarez: 1928-1936. Mexican Studies 25(1): 19-46, 2009. (64 refs.)

This article examines the two drug gangs in Ciudad Juarez that were significantly connected to local and state politics between 1928 and 1936. It sheds light on the border drug trade and the gangs themselves, shows how the gangs influenced local and state politics, and it illustrates how politics played an important role in shaping the gangs. In doing so, it clarifies the drug and political histories of Ciudad Juarez and the state of Chihuahua during the 1920s and 1930s.

Mullen RD. Afghanistan in 2008. State building at the precipice. Asian Survey 49(1): 28-38, 2009. (23 refs.)

The state-building endeavor in Afghanistan came to the brink in 2008 with the Taliban insurgency taking control of some southern districts, high poppy production fueling the illicit economy, widespread charges of corruption, and a looming humanitarian disaster. Afghans increasingly became disillusioned by high civilian casualties and the government's failure to provide improved socioeconomic conditions. By year's end, there was also increased pressure for negotiations with moderate Taliban elements.

Murji K. Hierarchies, markets and networks: Ethnicity/race and drug distribution. Journal of Drug Issues 37(4): 781-804, 2007. (61 refs.)

Three models -- hierarchies, markets, and networks -- are used to explore the organization of drug distribution and the place of ethnicity/race in that These models are well established as conceptual approaches to the coordination of social life. Each of them is employed in the analysis of drug distribution, though not always clearly. This paper aims to elucidate their key features as they bear on questions of ethnicity/race. In doing so, it problematizes the way that ethnicity/race is employed in research and policy circles and challenges naive assumptions about ethnic sameness and ethnicity/race as bases for organizing drug distribution. Ethnicity may be a useful resource for criminal and legitimate enterprises but both comparisons between the two and details of what is specifically ethnic are generally lacking. Some avenues for future research and simple principles to guide such research are proposed.

Naseem A; Abbas S. Diacetylmorphine (heroin) body packer presenting with respiratory arrest. JCPSP. Journal of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Pakistan 19(4): 262-263, 2009

Intracorporeal concealment of illicit drugs known as 'body packing' is uncommonly reported. A body packer with swallowed capsules containing Diacetylmorphine (heroin) for smuggling purposes presented with respiratory arrest and recovered after ventilatory support and nalaxone infusion.

Nordt C; Stohler R. Low-threshold methadone treatment, heroin price, police activity and incidence of heroin use: The Zurich experience. International Journal of Drug Policy 20(6, Special Issue): 497-501, 2009. (11 refs.)

Background: There still are concerns about unwanted effects of harm-reduction measures that may lead to an increasing number of new heroin users. Furthermore, it is thought that the admission of a substantial proportion of heroin users to methadone treatments reduces the demand on the heroin market and thus results in a lower price for street heroin. And finally, the intensity of police activity in the drug field may also affect prices for street heroin. Methods: As incidence of regular heroin use over more than a decade is rarely known elsewhere, we examined the Zurich experience between 1980 and 2005 by triangulating published and unpublished data, concerning heroin price, heroin purity level, heroin seizures and drug offences. This time period encompasses the time before and after the introduction of low-threshold methadone treatment in 1991. Results: We found a steep peak of heroin incidence in 1990. The street price of heroin already declined from 700 to 60 Swiss Francs during the 80s. The number of heroin consumptions possession offences reported by the police increased since 1991 and peaked in 1997, 2 years after the closure of the last open drug scene. Conclusion: The introduction of low-threshold methadone treatment has not resulted in lower heroin prices and the increased police activity during the 90s has not led to higher heroin prices, even though the higher police activity in the late 90s may have contributed to the prevention of a re-establishment of open drug scenes. In conclusion, we did not find a close relationship between street prices of heroin, police activity, and incidence of problematic heroin use.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. Who's Really in Prison for Marijuana?. Washington DC: Office of National Drug Control Policy, undated. (66 refs.)

This government document, directed to the general public, is intended to counter claims of "marijuana legalizers [who] claim that thousands of people are imprisoned for marijuana 'possession' ... whose crime was simply having in their possession a little bit of dope." Rather the document states that in reality those "technically serving time for marijuana possession were actually sent to prison on much more serious charges." In reality it is said, "The [those imprisoned] are criminals who have been found guilty of trafficking, manufacturing, selling or distributing the drug, or who were convicted of multiple offenses that happened to include a marijuana charge." The document discusses both state and federal laws and endeavors to clarify sources of misunderstandings, e.g. by clarifying distinctions between jails and prisons, or possession versus trafficking, the roll of plea bargains in distorting data. Tables are included with data on prison populations and marijuana offenders sentenced in federal courts. Several illustrative cases are included.

Ohlund LS; Gronbladh L. Patterns of deviant career in the history of female methadone clients: an exploratory study. International Journal of Social Welfare 18(1): 95-101, 2009. (27 refs.)

The aim of this article is to describe the drug career of 71 severely opioid-dependent women who had a history of selling sex and were enrolled in methadone maintenance treatment. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, from medical records and reports from social agencies and correctional institutions. The sequential pattern could be described in the following order: initiation of the first drug of abuse, opioid onset, initiation of selling sex, first non-methadone treatment episode, first sentence and, finally, methadone maintenance treatment. There were significant age differences and correlations between most of the events. The main correlation (r = 0.70) was the one between debut of opioid use and selling sex, which was confirmed in a stepwise multiple regression analysis. In addition, a history of running away from home advanced the age at which the women started selling sex for those with an onset of opioid use at an older age than the mean of 18.4 years.

Paoli L; Greenfield VA; Charles M; Reuter P. The global diversion of pharmaceutical drugs. Addiction 104(3): 347-354, 2009. (29 refs.)

This paper explores India's role in the world illicit opiate market, particularly its role as a producer. India, a major illicit opiate consumer, is also the sole licensed exporter of raw opium: this unique status may be enabling substantial diversion to the illicit market. Participant observation and interviews were carried out at eight different sites. Information was also drawn from all standard secondary sources and the analysis of about 180 drug-related criminal proceedings reviewed by Indian High Courts and the Supreme Court from 1985 to 2001. Diversion from licit opium production takes place on such a large scale that India may be the third largest illicit opium producer after Afghanistan and Burma. With the possible exceptions of 2005 and 2006, 200-300 tons of India's opium may be diverted yearly. After estimating India's opiate consumption on the basis of UN-reported prevalence estimates, we find that diversion from licit production might have satisfied a quarter to more than a third of India's illicit opiate demand to 2004. India is not only among the world's largest consumer of illicit opiates but also one of the largest illicit opium producers. In contrast to all other illicit producers, India owes the latter distinction not to blatantly illicit cultivation but to diversion from licit cultivation. India's experience suggests the difficulty of preventing substantial leakage, even in a relatively well-governed nation.

Paoli L; Rabkov I; Greenfield VA; Reuter P. Tajikistan: The rise of a narco-state. Journal of Drug Issues 37(4): 951-+, 2007. (71 refs.)

Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Tajikistan has experienced an extraordinary and devastating expansion of opiate trafficking and consumption. While heroin was virtually unknown in the country up to the mid-1990s and opium was produced and consumed locally only to a modest degree, in less than a decade Tajikistan has become a key transit country for Afghan opiates bound north- and westwards, at the same time as it has witnessed a rapid growth of domestic heroin use. Tajikistan now rivals Afghanistan for the unenviable title of the country most dependent on the illicit drug industry, with the opiate industry adding at least 30% to the recorded gross domestic product. The opiate trade is so important economically that it corrupts the whole political system. This article therefore argues that since the mid-1990s Tajikistan has become a narco-state, in which leaders of the most powerful trafficking groups occupy high-ranking government positions and misuse state structures for their own illicit businesses.

Patrick G; Daniell W; Treser C. Residual methamphetamine in decontaminated clandestine drug laboratories. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 6(3): 151-156, 2009. (10 refs.)

This pilot cross-sectional study examined three previously decontaminated residential clandestine drug laboratories (CDLs) in Washington State to determine the distribution and magnitude of residual methamphetamine concentrations relative to the state decontamination standard. A total of 159 discrete random methamphetamine wipe samples were collected from the three CDLs, focusing on the master bedroom, bathroom, living room, and kitchen at each site. Additional samples were collected from specific non-random locations likely to be contacted by future residents (e.g., door knobs and light switches). Samples were analyzed for methamphetamine by EPA method 8270 for semivolatile organic chemicals. Overall, 59% of random samples and 75% of contact point samples contained methamphetamine in excess of the state decontamination standard (0.1 g/100 cm2). At each site, methamphetamine concentrations were generally higher and more variable in rooms where methamphetamine was prepared and used. Even compared with the less stringent standard adopted in Colorado (0.5 g/100cm2), a substantial number of samples at each site still demonstrated excessive residual methamphetamine (random samples, 25%; contact samples, 44%). Independent oversight of CDL decontamination in residential structures is warranted to protect public health. Further research on the efficacy of CDL decontamination procedures and subsequent verification of methods is needed.

Peake STC; Das S; Greene S; Dubrey SW. Cocaine 'body packers' and the clinical management of packet rupture. British Journal of Hospital Medicine 70(2): 110-111, 2009. (7 refs.)

This is a case report of the management of the rupture of packets ingested by "body packers." The first case report of transport of illicit drugs was in 1973, when a condom containing hashish led to bowel obstruction. Of note, Heathrow Airport (England) reports indentifying on 5-8 individuals per week who have smuggled drugs by this method. Nigeria is the most common point of origin. In cases of packet rupture, death is likely to occur prior to reaching a hospital. Typically people carry up to 1 kg of cocaine, divided into 50-100 packets. A single packet contains a lethal dose. The case report required surgical intervention. There is also discussion of drug therapies to deal with the acute effects of the illicit drugs, such as agitation, hypertension, and myocardial ischemia.

Pinarkara E; Kayis SA; Hakki EE; Sag A. RAPD analysis of seized marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.) in Turkey. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology 12(1): article 7, 2009. (27 refs.)

Cannabis sativa L. is a multiple-use plant. However, its cultivation is strictly controlled due to its psychoactive nature and usage in producing drugs such as marijuana, and hashish. In this study, psychoactive type Cannabis samples, which were seized from 29 different locations of Turkey, were used. Interests were to identify the genetic relatedness of the seized samples and to partition molecular variance between and within populations. Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNAs were employed for analysis based on single plant material and bulked samples of them. Data were analysed via cluster and principal coordinate analyses (PCoA). Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) was performed to obtain variations between and within populations. Cannabis accessions were basically separated into two main groups by PCoA and cluster analyses according to geographical regions. One of them was made up of Cannabis plants, which were seized from mostly western part of Turkey (group 1). The other one was made up of Cannabis plants that were seized from mostly eastern part of Turkey (group 2). It is found that 20.23% of the genetic variation is due to differences between accessions groups while 79.77% of the genetic variation is due to between accessions within accessions groups. Compared to group 1, group 2 showed more variation.

Potter DJ; Clark P; Brown MB. Potency of Delta(9)-THC and other cannabinoids in cannabis in England in 2005: Implications for psychoactivity and pharmacology. Journal of Forensic Sciences 53(1): 90-94, 2008. (28 refs.)

Gas chromatography was used to study the cannabinoid content ("potency") of illicit cannabis seized by police in England in 2004/5. Of the four hundred and fifty two samples, indoor-grown unpollinated female cannabis ("sinsemilla") was the most frequent form, followed by resin (hashish) and imported outdoor-grown herbal cannabis (marijuana). The content of the psychoactive cannabinoid Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) varied widely. The median THC content of herbal cannabis and resin was 2.1% and 3.5%, respectively. The median 13.9% THC content of sinsemilla was significantly higher than that recorded in the UK in 1996/8. In sinsemilla and imported herbal cannabis, the content of the antipsychotic cannabinoid cannabidiol (CBD) was extremely low. In resin, however, the average CBD content exceeded that of THC, and the relative proportions of the two cannabinoids varied widely between samples. The increases in average THC content and relative popularity of sinsemilla cannabis, combined with the absence of the anti-psychotic cannabinoid CBD, suggest that the current trends in cannabis use pose an increasing risk to those users susceptible to the harmful psychological effects associated with high doses of THC.

Rachlis B; Brouwer KC; Mills EJ; Hayes M; Kerr T; Hogg RS. Migration and transmission of blood-borne infections among injection drug users: Understanding the epidemiologic bridge. (review). Drug and Alcohol Dependence 90(2/3): 107-119, 2007. (120 refs.)

Migration is one of many social factors contributing to the spread of HIV and other blood-borne or sexually transmitted infections (STI). Bringing together large numbers of people from diverse settings, the process of migration moves infected individuals to diverse geographic locations. Injection drug users (IDU) are a relatively mobile group, often moving between cities, smaller communities, and across international borders for reasons of work, security, or access to narcotics. This mobility indicates the potential for IDU who engage in risky behavior outside their home areas to transmit HIV infection to other IDU, their sex partners, and others in the population. The objectives of this review are to examine: (1) the influence of drug trafficking and the spread of drug use on the diffusion of HIV, (2) the influence of migration on drug use and HIV-related risk behaviors among migrants, and (3) the mobility patterns of IDU and its role in the spread of HIV. We also discuss the potential policy implications of addressing prevention and care issues in mobile drug using populations.

Richardson M; Kinner S; Lloyd B. Queensland Trends in Ecstasy and Related Drug Markets 2006: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS). NDARC Technical Report No. 279. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, 2007. (12 refs.)

Following an introduction and presentation of the survey methodology, this report describes the sample of regular ecstasy users, i.e. their demographic characteristics and drug use patterns, which typically involve polydrug use. The report then turns to the use of ecstasy, methamphetamine, cocaine, ketamine, GHB, and MDA, and for each of these describes use patterns, the price, price, purity and availability of the drug, and associated harms. Another section looks at other drug use as well ? alcohol, benzodiazepines, inhalants, opiates, mushrooms, and LSD. The following sections deal with risk behaviors, in the domains of route of drug administration, driving, blood-borne infection, sexual activity, as well as health-related behaviors, such as overdose, side effects, contaminants, and any help seeking. The final descriptive section focuses upon criminal activity. The report concludes with discussion of the implications of the report for policy and health care. The report presents data in 134 tables and figures.

Robins P. Back from the brink: Turkey's ambivalent approaches to the hard drugs issue. Middle East Journal 62(4): 630-650, 2008. (55 refs.)

This article focuses on the issue of narcotics and Turkey over a 30-year period. Its point of departure is the 1970s, when the opium production crisis in Turkey, and its associated corrosion of relations with the US, had been brought to an end. The article concentrates on the period in the late 1980s/early to mid-1990s, When the hard drugs issue became fused with other security threats like terrorism and state corruption. During this dark period, Turkey's criminal organizations that were trafficking narcotics made significant inroads in alliance-building with parts of the security state. The article ends with the experiences of the late 1990s and early 2000s, when the Turkish state succeeded in containing the impact of illicit drugs. The article argues that both external but in particular internal factors were important in propelling the Turkish stale towards purging itself of criminal elements involved with hard drugs. With respect to the latter, it argues that the need to safeguard the state, rather than the narcotics issue per se, was the key factor driving change.

Robinson M; Scherlen R. Lies, Damned Lies, and Drug War Statistics: A Critical Analysis of Claims Made by the Office of National Drug Control Policy. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007

This book analyzes, "The National Drug Control Strategy," the annual reports prepared by the Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), a White House agency. These reports are intended to provide information about trends in drug use and assess federal programs that are aimed at reducing the supply of and demand for illegal drugs. The authors examine six editions of this annual report between 2000 and 2005 to review the way in which ONDCP presents data. They conclude that there is a pattern of manipulating statistics and creating visual presentation that distort the nature of the situation. The authors' analysis indicates, that contrary to these reports, what the data demonstrate is a "drug war" that consistently fails to reduce drug use, or reduce drug fatalities or illnesses associated with drug use, that fails to provide treatment for drug dependent users, and that drives up the prices of drugs. The book concludes with policy recommendations for reforming ONDCP's use of statistics, as well as how the nation fights the war on drugs.

Rosenblum A; Parrino M; Schnoll SH; Fong C; Maxwell C; Cleland CM et al. Prescription opioid abuse among enrollees into methadone maintenance treatment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 90(1): 64-71, 2007. (36 refs.)

A multi-state survey of 5663 opioid dependent persons enrolling in 72 methadone maintenance treatment programs (MMTPs) was conducted to determine the prevalence of prescription opioid (PO) abuse, factors associated with PO abuse and sources for POs. Regions where PO abuse was believed to be prevalent were oversampled; primary opioid was defined as the drug used the most before coming to the MMTP. Among primary heroin abusers, 69% reported abusing POs. Opioid abuse frequencies among primary PO abusers were oxycodone (79%), hydrocodone (67%), methadone (40%), morphine (29%), heroin (13%), hydromorphone (16%), fentanyl (9%) and buprenorphine (1 %). Correlates (p <= .01) of PO abuse, using general estimating equations, were: low urbanicity (MMTPs located in comparatively low population density counties), white ethnicity, no history of injecting primary drug, no previous methadone treatment, younger age, chronic pain, and pain as a reason for enrollment. The most frequent sources of POs were dealer, friend or relative, and doctor's prescription; least frequent were Internet and forged prescription. One-third of PO abusers reported a history of injecting their primary drug. PO abuse is highly prevalent among MMTP patients. Future studies should describe HIV/HCV needle injection practices, characteristics that predict treatment outcomes, and factors that contribute to higher prevalence of persistent pain among PO abusers. reserved.

Ross J; Campbell G; Degenhardt L; Dillon P. Driving and Clubbing in Sydney: A Study of Drug Use and Risk Among Nightclub Attendees. NDARC Technical Report No. 289. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, 2007

This report focuses upon the effects of 'club' drugs, on driving. In October 2006 legislation was passed allowing random roadside drug testing for three illicit drugs: THC, methamphetamine and ecstasy (MDMA). In anticipation of the introduction of roadside testing, a study was conducted to examine the prevalence of illicit drug use among nightclub attendees in Sydney, NSW. 419 persons were interviewed for the study. Among the key finding are the following: On their last clubbing occasion 71% reported alcohol use, 47% ecstasy, 24% methamphetamine powder, and 15% cannabis. 2) Patterns of transportation were identified: driving themselves (28%), riding with someone else (22%), public transportation (17%). Notable proportions reported having driven under the influence of ecstasy (15%), methamphetamine powder (9%), alcohol (9%) or cannabis (5%) on their last club attendance. Similarly, many reported having been a passenger of someone under the influence of ecstasy (22%), alcohol (15%), methamphetamine powder (14%) or cannabis (12%). In terms of attitudes toward roadside drug testing: 85% correctly thought that the test would detect the use of ecstasy (86%), methamphetamine powder (78%), crystal methamphetamine (62%) and cannabis (78%). They participants were erroneously thought that the test could also identify heroin (40%) and cocaine (61%). Of interest, a third of the sample indicated that roadside drug testing would change their behaviour: 8% reported that they wouldn?t use drugs if planning to drive, 6% reported that they would wait 2?3 hours before driving and 18% reported that they would not drive if they were clubbing. Of the group who would not drive if taking drugs, 46% reported they would catch a taxi, 39% public transport and 14% would get seek a ride with someone else.

Rusch ML; Lozada R; Pollini RA; Vera A; Patterson TL; Case P et al. Polydrug use among IDUs in Tijuana, Mexico: Correlates of methamphetamine use and route of administration by gender. Journal of Urban Health 86(5): 760-775, 2009. (58 refs.)

Tijuana is situated on the Mexico-USA border adjacent to San Diego, CA, on a major drug trafficking route. Increased methamphetamine trafficking in recent years has created a local consumption market. We examined factors associated with methamphetamine use and routes of administration by gender among injection drug users (IDUs). From 2006-2007, IDUs a parts per thousand yen18 years old in Tijuana were recruited using respondent-driven sampling, interviewed, and tested for HIV, syphilis, and TB. Logistic regression was used to assess associations with methamphetamine use (past 6 months), stratified by gender. Among 1,056 participants, methamphetamine use was more commonly reported among females compared to males (80% vs. 68%, p < 0.01), particularly, methamphetamine smoking (57% vs. 34%; p < 0.01). Among females (N = 158), being aged > 35 years (AOR, 0.2; 95% CI, 0.1-0.6) was associated with methamphetamine use. Among males (N = 898), being aged > 35 years (AOR, 0.5; 95% CI, 0.3-0.6), homeless (AOR, 1.4 (0.9-2.2)), and ever reporting sex with another male (MSM; AOR, 1.9; 95% CI, 1.4-2.7) were associated with methamphetamine use. Among males, a history of MSM was associated with injection, while sex trade and > 2 casual sex partners were associated with multiple routes of administration. HIV was higher among both males and females reporting injection as the only route of methamphetamine administration. Methamphetamine use is highly prevalent among IDUs in Tijuana, especially among females. Routes of administration differed by gender and subgroup which has important implications for tailoring harm reduction interventions and drug abuse treatment.

Sales P; Murphy S. San Francisco's freelancing ecstasy dealers: Towards a sociological understanding of drug markets. Journal of Drug Issues 37(4): 919-950, 2007. (59 refs.)

We present analyses based on selected findings from a NIDA-funded project entitled, "An Exploratory Study of Ecstasy Distribution" (2003-2006). We conducted in-depth interviews with 120 men and women in the San Francisco Bay area who had sold five or more doses five or more times in the six months prior to the interview. The research focused on the motivations and circumstances surrounding the decision to initiate sales, sales settings, the characteristics of both sellers and buyers and their relationships. It also focused on negotiated order and social identities. We describe the ways in which a sample of educated, housed, and employed Ecstasy dealers' attitudes and practices compared with more marginalized groups from other drug market studies. These findings suggest attention to social class, that is, the social characteristics of sellers and the availability of types of sales settings (public vs. private) is critical to developing a sociological understanding of drug markets.

Sanaei-Zadeh H. Body packer with opiate toxicity. (editorial). Internal Medicine Journal 39(11): 776-776, 2009. (3 refs.)

Sanotsky Y; Lesyk R; Fedoryshyn L; Komnatska I; Matviyenko Y; Fahn S. Manganic encephalopathy due to "ephedrone" abuse. Movement Disorders 22(9): 1337-1343, 2007. (32 refs.)

We describe the clinical and neuroimaging features of 6 drug-abuse patients with self-inflicted manganese poisoning. The patients injected a home-brewed mixture called "ephedrone" (slang term) that contained manganese to produce an amphetamine-like euphoria. The desired chemical product, phenylpropanoneamine (also called metheathinone), was synthesized from a common-cold-remedy compound using permanganate as the catalyst. Manganese was a by-product in the ephedrone mixture. After months of self-injections, a clinical picture emerged, consisting of apathy, bradykinesia, gait disorder with postural instability, and spastic-hypokinetic dysarthria. There was no response to levodopa. The MRI revealed symmetric hyperintense T1-weighted signals in the basal ganglia, typical of manganese accumulation.

Schifano F; Corkery J. Cocaine/crack cocaine consumption, treatment demand, seizures, related offences, prices, average purity levels and deaths in the UK (1990-2004). Journal of Psychopharmacology 22(1): 71-79, 2008. (59 refs.)

A recent trend of escalating use of cocaine/crack cocaine was observed in the UK. The number of mentions on death certificates; last year use of cocaine; treatment demand, number of drug offenders, seizures, prices and average purity levels were the indicators used for this descriptive and correlational study. Figures ( 1990-2004) were taken from official UK sources. A total of 1022 cocaine/crack cocaine death mentions ( i.e. deaths from any cause where the presence of cocaine/ crack cocaine was also detected) were identified, with cocaine/ crack cocaine being the sole drug mentioned in 36% of cases. The number of cocaine/ crack cocaine death mentions showed a year-on-year increase and correlated positively with the following cocaine ( powder) figures: last year use ( p < 0.001); number of offenders ( p < 0.001) and number of seizures ( p < 0.001), but correlated negatively with price ( p < 0.001). Furthermore, the number of cocaine/ crack cocaine death mentions correlated positively with the number of crack offenders ( p < 0.001) and seizures ( p < 0.001), but correlated negatively with both crack purity ( p < 0.001) and price ( p < 0.05). With conditions of increasing drug availability having been met in the UK, decrease in cocaine prices were associated with higher consumption levels and this, in turn, contributed to the increase in number of cocaine-related fatalities. There are limitations with the information collected, since no distinction is usually made on medical death certificates between cocaine and crack cocaine. The present study being an ecological one, it proved difficult to address the role of confounding variables that may well explain some of the associations observed.

Schmidt S; Hugli O; Rizzo E; Lepori D; Gudinchet R; Yersin B et al. Detection of ingested cocaine-filled packets - Diagnostic value of unenhanced CT. European Journal of Radiology 67(1): 133-138, 2008. (24 refs.)

Purpose: Emergency departments are facing nowadays an increasing number of illegal drug-related health problems, associated with medicolegal and/or social consequences. Body stuffers are street cocaine dealers, who either store wrapped packets of drugs in their rectum or hastily swallow them, prompted by fear of police's arrest. These packets can be life threatening in case of leakage. We evaluate the diagnostic value of unenhanced multidetector CT (MDCT) for detection of cocaine-filled packets (CFP) ingested by body stuffers in a phantom model. Materials and methods: Our phantom simulated normal bowel contents in which a varying number of true and false UP were randomly mixed. Both only differ in radiological density. During 18 different reading sessions, four radiologists independently evaluated the presence and number of true and false CFP. Interobserver agreement, sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value were calculated. Results: Interobserver agreement for detection of any packets, for visualization of true, and false UP was good (kappa=0.63, 0.74 and 0.58, respectively). Sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value for detection of any packets was 95.6%, 100%, 100% and 62.5%, respectively; for visualization of the true UP 86.5%, 100%, 100% and 77.6%, respectively; and for the false packets 98.1%, 65%, 88.6% and 87.5%, respectively. Conclusion: Unenhanced MDCT without bowel preparation is a fast, reliable and easily reproducible imaging modality for the immediate detection of ingested UP, thus facilitating medicolegal management of body stuffers.

Schneider NK; Ling PM. How tobacco protects you against the flu. (editorial). Tobacco Control 17(3): 215-216, 2008. (4 refs.)

This editorial highlights a recent advertising campaign conducted in Germany, conducted in the wake of limitations on tobacco advertising within the European Union.

Seddon T; Ralphs R; Williams L. Risk, secrity and the 'criminalization' of British drug policy. British Journal of Criminology 48(6): 818-834, 2008. (98 refs.)

Recent British drug policy has increasingly focused on 'problem drug users', namely users of heroin and/or crack-cocaine who are involved in acquisitive offending. The overarching objective of the new drug policy agenda is to develop and enhance the pathways between the criminal justice system and drug treatment services, with the aim of reducing this 'drug-related' crime. The emphasis on crime reduction, and on drug treatment in the criminal justice system, has led some to term this development the 'criminalization' of drug policy. In this paper, this new policy direction will be examined. An explanatory account for this 'criminalizing' turn will be set out, drawing on theoretical debates about the politics of risk and security in late modernity.

Sifaneck SJ; Ream GL; Johnson BD; Dunlap E. Retail marijuana purchases in designer and commercial markets in New York City: Sales units, weights, and prices per gram. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 90(Supplement 1): S40-S51, 2007. (48 refs.)

This paper documents the bifurcation of the market for commercial marijuana from the market for designer marijuana in New York City. Commercial marijuana is usually grown outdoors, imported to NYC, and of average quality. By contrast, several varities of designer marijuana are usually grown indoors from specially bred strains and carefully handled for maximum quality. The mechanisms for marijuana sales include street/park sellers, delivery services, private sales, and storefronts. Retail sales units vary from $5 to $50 and more, but the actual weights and price per gram of retail marijuana purchases lacks scientific precision. Ethnographic staff recruited marijuana purchasers who used digital scales to weigh a purposive sample of 99 marijuana purchases. Results indicate clear differences in price per gram between the purchases of commercial (average $8.20/g) and designer (average $ 18.02/g) marijuana. Designer purchases are more likely to be made by whites, downtown (Lower East Side/Union Square area), via delivery services, and in units of $ 10 bags, $50 cubes, and eighth and quarter ounces. Commercial marijuana purchases are more likely to be made by blacks, uptown (Harlem), via street dealers, and in units of $5 and $20 bags. Imported commercial types Arizona and Chocolate were only found uptown, while designer brand names describing actual strains like Sour Diesel and White Widow were only found downtown. Findings indicate clear divisions between commercial and designer marijuana markets in New York City. The extent that these differences may be based upon different THC potencies is a matter for future research.

Simi P; Smith L; Reeser AMS. From punk kids to public enemy number one. Deviant Behavior 29(8): 753-774, 2008. (57 refs.)

Using an in-depth case study, we examine the origins and development of the Southern California-based racist skinhead gang known as Public Enemy Number One (PENI). Unlike many racist skinheads who view themselves as part of a political movement, members of PENI view themselves as part of a racist street gang with relatively little interest in traditional forms of political activism. Instead and contrary to the focus of most scholarly research on racist groups, PENI is involved in profit-oriented criminal activity such as the distribution of methamphetamine, identity theft, and counterfeiting. We examine how members of PENI attempt to balance a white supremacist and street gang identity.

Sinha J. History and Development of the Leading International Drug Control Conventions. Ottawa Canada: Library of Parliament (Canada) Canadian Parliament, Senate Special Committee On Illegal Drugs, February 21, 2001. (64 refs.)

This is a special report prepared for the Canadian Parliament's Senate Special Committee On Illegal Drugs. It reviews the history and development of international drug control conventions. The current legal and administrative framework for international drug control is laid out in three international Conventions negotiated in 1961 under the auspices of the United Nations (UN). These include (1) the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 (Single Convention) as amended by the Protocol Amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961; the Convention on Psychotropic Substances (Psychotropics Convention); and the Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (Trafficking Convention). These agreements were the product of multiple prior conferences and international agreements, dating back to the 1909. The first portion of this report summarizes these earlier initiatives beginning with the 1909 Shangai Conference, and followed by the 1912 Hague International Opium Convention, the 1925 Geneva Opium Conventions, the 1931 Geneva Narcotics Manufacturing and Distribution Limitation Convention/1931 Bangkok Opium Smoking Agreement, the 1936 Geneva Trafficking Convention, events of World War II, the 1946 Lake Success Protocol, the 1948 Paris Protocol, and the 1953 New York Opium Protocol. The history of international drug control gives insight into the philosophical and practical underpinnings of the three drug Conventions. Beginning in an era of morally tainted racism and colonial trade wars, prohibition-based drug control grew to international proportions at the insistence of the United States. America and the colonial powers were confronted with the effects of drug addiction and abuse at home, but rather than address both demand -- the socio-medical nature of such problems -- and supply, they focused uniquely on the latter and attempted to stem the flow of drugs into their territories. In doing so, they earned political capital back home and shifted the cost and burden of drug control to predominantly Asian and Latin American developing countries with no cultural inclination or resources to take on such an intrusive task-- and no economic or military power to refuse what was imposed on them. The Western control advocates' prohibition focus also stimulated the growth and development of the global illicit drug trade. And ironically, the system has had very little overall success in controlling the supply of drugs at the source. Nonetheless, supply-oriented activists largely achieved their goal of creating a prohibition-based international drug control system. The role of the pharmaceutical companies in the emergence of these conventions is described. The Single Convention consolidated the system under the UN into one key narcotics control document - an instrument representing the compromises between the domestic and economic interests of predominantly Western, drug manufacturing nations. The Psychotropics Convention represented a weakening of the control structure because of the overwhelming influence of European and North American pharmaceutical interests throughout negotiations. The Trafficking Convention firmly established a system of international criminal drug control law that uses criminalization and penalization to combat global drug trafficking. Although the three Conventions do leave member countries some leeway to craft drug control strategies shaped to their particular socio-cultural, political and economic realities, this flexibility is clearly limited by an overarching structure based on prohibition and criminalization.

Small W; Wood E; Buchner C; Fair B; Kerr T. Decline in needle exchange use in Vancouver, Canada coincides with the Australian heroin shortage. (editorial). International Journal of Drug Policy 19(4): 291-292, 2008. (10 refs.)

Smith JP; Martin A; Sammons DL; Striley C; Biagini R; Quinn J et al. Measurement of methamphetamine on surfaces using surface plasmon resonance. Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods 19(6-7): 416-421, 2009. (7 refs.)

Field methods are needed to assess the contamination of surfaces by methamphetamine from illicit drug manu facturing. This study performed a feasibility study on the use of a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based instrument (SensiQ Discovery) in the evaluation of surface contamination by methamphetamine. The main goal was to see if the method could be sensitive enough for field measurements. A competitive immunochemical assay was developed for the instrument which was able to measure methamphetamine at 9 ng/ml with a range of 9-250 ng/ml. Methamphetamine was spiked onto ceramic tiles and the assay was able to detect methamphet amine contamination at 25 ng/100 cm(2), which is below the 50 ng/100 cm(2) standard used for surface cleanup assessment. The instrument is compact and mobile and is sensitive enough for use for measurement of meth amphetamine on surfaces, so it is a candidate for a field method for methamphetamine surface contamination. Its use for this application will require further development of the instrument to make it more convenient to use. Also further evaluation of ruggedness and use of the instrument under various environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity are needed to define conditions under which the instrument can be employed in field measurements.

Storti CC; De Grauwe P. Globalization and the price decline of illicit drugs. International Journal of Drug Policy 20(1): 48-61, 2009. (25 refs.)

Background: This study aims at understanding the mechanisms underlying the dramatic decline of the retail prices of major drugs like cocaine and heroin during the past two decades. It also aims at analysing the implications of this decline for drug policies. Methods: We use a theoretical model to identify the possible causes of this price decline. This allows us to formulate the hypothesis that the major driving force behind the price decline is a reduction of the intermediation margin (the difference between the retail and producer prices). We also develop the hypothesis that globalization has been an important factor behind the decline of the intermediation margin. We then analyse the statistical information to test these hypotheses. Results: We find that the decline in the retail prices of drugs is related to the strong decline in the intermediation margin in the drug business, and that globalization is the main driving force behind this phenomenon. Globalization has done so by increasing the efficiency of the distribution of drugs, by reducing the risk premium involved in dealing with drugs, and by increasing the degree of competition ill the drug markets. Conclusion: We conclude that the cocaine and heroin price declines were due to a sharp fall in the intermediation margin, which was probably influenced by globalization. This phenomenon might have a strong impact on the effectiveness of drug policies, increasing the relative effectiveness of policies aiming at reducing the demand of drugs.

Storti CC; De Grauwe P. The cocaine and heroin markets in the era of globalisation and drug reduction policies. International Journal of Drug Policy 20(6, Special Issue): 488-496, 2009. (36 refs.)

Background: Despite the large volume of public effort devoted to restrain drug supply and the growing attention given to drug demand reduction policies, the use of cocaine and heroin remains steady. Furthermore, retail drug prices have fallen significantly in Europe and the US. This puzzling evidence leads us to develop a model aiming at systematically analysing illicit drug markets. Methods: We model the markets of cocaine and heroin from production to the final retail markets. One novelty of the analysis consists in characterising the retail market as a monopolistic competitive one. Then, upper level dealers have some market power in the retail market. This allows them to charge a markup and to earn extra profits. These extra profits attract newcomers so that profits tend to fall over time. Results: Theoretical model was used to analyse the effect of supply containment policies on the retail market, the producer market and the export-import business. This introduces the discussion of the impact of demand reduction policies on the high level traffickers' profit. Finally, globalisation enters in the model. Conclusions: Law enforcement measures increase the risk premia received by the lower and higher level traffickers. Consequently, trafficking intermediation margins tend to increase. However, globalisation has the opposite effect. It lowers intermediation margins and, then, pushes retail prices down, thereby stimulating consumption. In doing so, globalisation offsets the effects of supply containment policies. Finally, we discuss how the effectiveness of supply containment policies can be enhanced by combining them with demand reduction policies.

Strathdee SA; Case P; Lozada R; Mantsios AR; Alvelais J; Pu MY et al. The color of meth: Is it related to adverse health outcomes? An exploratory study in Tijuana, Mexico. American Journal on Addictions 17(2): 111-115, 2008. (12 refs.)

In a study of injection drug users (IDUs) in Tijuana, Mexico, logistic regression identified factors associated with injection of colored vs. clear methamphetamine in the prior six months (N = 613). Colors injected most often were clear (50%), white (47%), yellow (2%), and pink (1%). IDUs injecting colored meth were more likely to experience recent abscesses (34%) compared to those injecting clear meth (24%; p = 0.008), an association that persisted after adjusting for confounders. Market characteristics, possibly relating to purity or adulterants, may be associated with abscesses among methamphetamine injectors. Further study is needed to confirm and determine the mechanism of this association to better inform prevention messages.

Takekawa K; Ohmori T; Kido A; Oya M. Methamphetamine body packer: Acute poisoning death due to massive leaking of methamphetamine. Journal of Forensic Sciences 52(5): 1219-1222, 2007. (19 refs.)

We encountered three methamphetamine (MA) body packers presenting simultaneously, one of whom died. Three Nigerian men (39, 35, and 37 years old) who attempted to smuggle were found to contain 35 (498 g), 21 (292 g), and 5 packages (73 g) of methamphetamine hydrochloride (MA-HCl) in their stomachs, respectively. Packages were wrapped with plastic film and Scotch tape. The 39-year-old man died with acute poisoning from c. 20 g of MA-HCl that had leaked from the packages into the stomach. His plasma MA concentration was 8.6 mu g/mL when he was hospitalized (17 h before his death). Autopsy findings showed extreme pulmonary congestion and edema as well as moderate hepatic edema and several petechiae. Quantitative analysis was performed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Extremely high concentrations of MA and its metabolite amphetamine (AP) were found in cardiac blood (63.5 mu g/mL and 1.2 mu g/mL), urine (4,518 mu g/mL and 72.4 mu g/mL), gastric contents (8,490 mu g/mL and 16.9 mu g/mL), and in all other autopsy samples. These high concentrations confirmed that the cause of death was acute MA poisoning. Furthermore, impurity-profiling analysis of the seized MA revealed that the MA smuggled by the three suspects originated from the same batch.

Taylor E. Illegal human growth hormone markets: Issues in controlling online drug sales and advertising. Journal of Legal Medicine 29(2): 237-253, 2008. (129 legal refs.)

Terrettaz-Zufferey AL; Ratle F; Ribaux O; Esseiva P; Kanevski M. Pattern detection in forensic case data using graph theory: Application to heroin cutting agents. Forensic Science International 167(2-3): 242-246, 2007. (13 refs.)

Pattern recognition techniques can be very useful in forensic sciences to point out to relevant sets of events and potentially encourage an intelligence-led style of policing. In this study, these techniques have been applied to categorical data corresponding to cutting agents found in heroin seizures. An application of graph theoretic methods has been performed, in order to highlight the possible relationships between the location of seizures and co-occurrences of particular heroin cutting agents. An analysis of the co-occurrences to establish several main combinations has been done. Results illustrate the practical potential of mathematical models in forensic data analysis.

Titeca K. The 'Masai' and miraa: Public authority, vigilance and criminality in a Ugandan border town. Journal of Modern African Studies 47(2): 291-317, 2009. (43 refs.)

Recent studies on vigilante groups show how they often begin as popular schemes for imposing order, before degenerating into violent militias which contribute in turn to social and political disorder. The Masai, a group of khat sellers and consumers in the Ugandan border town of Bwera, represent a more complex case. By using vigilance tactics in the provision of security, the Masai actually help to shape public authority within Bwera town instead of creating institutional chaos. They also provide a range of services, imposing a degree of order on illegal cross-border activities in the area. However, a closer look at the Masai shows that their vigilance activities are mainly performed out of self-interest, as a quid pro quo enabling them to continue their illegal activities of smuggling, general criminality outside town and illegal drug use. Therefore they straddle the 'crime or social order' dynamic, representing a criminal gang of illegal drug traffickers which also provides services for public community interests. As such, they contribute to both order and crime.

Toprak S; Cetin I. Heroin overdose deaths and heroin purity between 1990 and 2000 in Istanbul, Turkey. Journal of Forensic Sciences 54(5): 1185-1188, 2009. (19 refs.)

Turkey has continuously experienced problems with abuse of, and addiction to, opium derivatives. In this study, we analyzed the relationship between heroin overdose deaths and the characteristics of seized opium derivatives. Data were gathered from the Council of Forensic Medicine of the Ministry of Justice in Istanbul from 1990 to 2000. There were 636 heroin-related deaths during this period, 595 of which were classified as heroin overdose deaths. Mean crude and weighted heroin purities remained relatively constant and were calculated to be 46% (57-34%) and 51% (39-59%), respectively. The weight of heroin and the number of heroin seizures, but not the heroin purity, were significantly associated with the number of heroin-related deaths. Prevention strategies are needed to reduce the number of deaths caused by overdoses in countries situated on drug trafficking routes. These strategies should focus on drug trafficking, by providing increased levels of, and support for, law enforcement, stopping the supply of precursor chemicals, and combating corruption among border officials.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Kabal. Afghanistan Opium Survey 2007. Executive Summary. Vienna Austria: United National Office on Drugs and Crime, 2007. (0 refs.)

The Foreward to this Summary notes that in 2007 Afghanistan cultivated 17% more hectares of opium, an incrase of 17% over the prior year. The favorable weather conditions allowed production of 34% greater tons of opium in the prior year, making the country the exclusive supplier of the world's heroin, 93% of the global market. Regional differences in production are highligted. The nature of the drug trade is also described and its association with insurgency. Charts and tables are used to present the data.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Morocco Cannabis Survey 2005. Executive Summary. Vienna Austria: United Nation Office on Drugs and Crime, 2007. (0 refs.)

This Cannabis Survey was implemented by the Governmentof Morocco. The country, despite decreases in the area under cultivation, is a major source of cannabis cultivation and the primary source for cannabis in Europe. With cultivation decreased, prices doubled in 2005 for raw cannabis, and virtually tripled for cannabis resin. Data is presented in tables and displayed in maps.

Public Domain

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2007. New York: United Nations Publications, 2007. (Chapter refs.)

This annual report from the United Nations provides information on the illicit global drug trade. In the preface it is noted that "the world drug problem is being contained. As evidence it is noted that for almost every kind of illicit drug -- cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and amphetamine-type stimulants -- there are signs of overall stability, whether in terms of cultivation, production or consumption. It is pointed out that almost half of all cocaine produced is now being intercepted, but from 24% in 1999, and more than a quarter of all heroin. The province of Helmand in Afghanistan is the primary source of global heroin. It is estimated that the annual prevalence of drug users represents 5 % of the global population between the ages of 15 and 64 (200 million people), and 0.6% of the global population (25 million) are problem drug users. Drug trafficking is to considerable degree controlled by organized crime, and thrives in areas of instability and where governmental corruption negates interdiction. Seizures of cannabis and amphetamine-like drugs are more difficult because of the relatively shorter supply lines. Cannabis presents particularly problems for estimating the size of the crop, largely because it is grown in over 172 countries, often on small plots by the users themselves. The report provides data on the trends in global production, seizures of different drug classes, the patterns of drug trafficking, and consumption patterns, with special attention to the above listed drugs. [NB. Data earlier assembled in a second volume is not longer being published, but is available on the Office's web site.]

Valdez A; Kaplan C. Conditions that increase drug market involvement: The invitational edge and the case of Mexicans in South Texas. Journal of Drug Issues 37(4): 893-918, 2007. (65 refs.)

Research on drug trafficking has not been able to discern the exact nature of illegal drug markets and the relationship between their individual and group participants. This article delineates the role of Mexican immigrants and Mexican-American participants involved in the stratified drug market of South Texas. This article synthesizes ethnographic materials drawn from two previous National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) studies in order identify the different types of drug distribution behaviors that occur within the groups, the differentiated roles of individuals, the organizational framework, and most significantly, the processes that link market participants to others outside of the drug market. This illegal behavior can be interpreted as an adaptive mechanism that is a direct response to the marginal economic status imposed by macro socio-economical background factors. As well we conclude that the specific foreground factors of the opportunities offered by the context, culture, and proximity of the U.S./Mexico border and invitational edges explain this behavior. There are both parallels and particular differences between the South Texas case and the structuring and functioning of informal legal and illegal markets that are characteristic of other economically disadvantaged communities.

Veyrie N; Servajean S; Aissat A; Corigliano N; Angelakov C; Bouillot JL. Value of a systematic operative protocol for cocaine body packers. World Journal of Surgery 32(7): 1432-1437, 2008. (24 refs.)

Background: Internal concealment of illicit drugs during international drug traffic represents an important problem in developed countries. These drug traffickers are called "body packers." The aim of this study was to analyze retroprospectively the surgical indications and complications for cocaine body packers and to describe our systematic operative protocol. Methods From January 1997 to December 2005, 1,181 cocaine body packers were admitted to our Medico-Judiciary Emergency Department. All patients had the same medical surveillance protocol. Nineteen patients required surgical procedure to remove drug packets. Results: Thirteen patients had obstruction or intestinal retention (68%). Suspicion of packet rupture or cocaine intoxication occurred in six patients (32%). Zero to three enterotomies were necessary during laparotomy. No deaths occurred. One pouch abscess required relaparotomy and one wound abscess was treated medically. The median hospital stay was 7 days (range: 5-30 days). Conclusions: Few cocaine body packers required a laparotomy. Our systematic operative protocol allowed intestinal clearance and caused acceptable morbidity rate.

Werb D; Kerr T; Li K; Montaner J; Wood E. Risks surrounding drug trade involvement among street-involved youth. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 34(6): 810-820, 2008. (48 refs.)

Background: Street-involved youth have been shown to be involved in the street-level illicit drug trade in a number of jurisdictions, though little is known about risk factors and sequelae of this behavior. The present study was therefore conducted to investigate factors associated with the street-level drug trade involvement among street-based youth. Methods: We used logistic regression to examine factors associated with drug dealing among participants in the At-Risk Youth Study in Vancouver, Canada. We also examined motivations for drug trade involvement and types of drugs sold by participants. Results: Overall, 529 street-involved youth were followed during the study period, of whom 307 (58.0%) reported having been involved in the drug trade in the last six months. In a logistic regression analysis, crack cocaine use (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 1.84, 95% CI: 1.28-2.67), homelessness (AOR = 1.58, 95% CI: 1.04-2.40), and having been assaulted by police (AOR = 1.85, 95% CI: 1.14-3.00) were independently associated with drug dealing among cohort participants. Among participants who reported drug dealing, 263 (85.6%) individuals stated that the main reason that they sold drugs was to pay for their personal drug use. Conclusions: In our setting, street-involved youth implicated in the drug trade are characterized by drug-related and sociodemographic vulnerabilities. These individuals also appear to be motivated by drug dependence and report elevated levels of police violence. Our findings have immediate implications for drug strategies targeting street-level drug dealing.

West JB; Hurley JM; Ehleringer JR. Stable isotope ratios of marijuana. I. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes describe growth conditions. Journal of Forensic Sciences 54(1): 84-89, 2009. (35 refs.)

There remains significant uncertainty in illicit marijuana cultivation. We analyzed the delta C-13 and delta N-15 of 508 domestic samples from known U.S.A. counties, 31 seized from a single location, 5 samples grown in Mexico and Colombia, and 10 northwest border seizures. For a subset, inflorescences and leaves were analyzed separately. These data revealed a strong correspondence, with inflorescences having slightly higher delta C-13 and delta N-15 values than leaves. A framework for interpreting these results is introduced and evaluated. Samples identified as outdoor-grown by delta C-13 were generally recorded as such by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). DEA-classified indoor-grown samples had the most negative delta C-13 values, consistent with indoor cultivation, although many were also in the outdoor-grown domain. delta N-15 indicated a wide range of fertilizers across the dataset. Samples seized at the single location suggested multiple sources. Northwest border delta C-13 values suggested indoor growth, whereas for the Mexican and Colombian samples they indicated outdoor growth.

West R; Townsend J; Joossens L; Arnott D; Lewis S. Why combating tobacco smuggling is a priority. (editorial). British Medical Journal 337(e-article1933), 2008. (14 refs.)

White N; Vial R; Ali R. SA Trends in Ecstasy and Related Drug Markets 2006: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS). NDARC Technical Report No. 280. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, 2007. (46 refs.)

This report presents information on ecstasy and other related drug markets, including methamphetamine, cocaine, GHB and ketamine, LSD, and MDA, assessed by survey. The report outlines trends in the use and associated harms of these drugs, as well as their price, purity and availability. Information is presented on the demographic characteristics of regular ecstasy users, the natural history of ecstasy and accompanying drug use. The majority of users also regularly use alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis. Common risk behaviors are identified, related to route of administration, sexual activity, and driving. Problems attendant to use are discussed, both health problems, financial difficulty, relationship problems, and criminal activity. Following a summary conclusion, the report sets forth implications for health policy and harm reduction strategies.

Wilkins C; Sweetsur P. Individual dollar expenditure and earnings from cannabis in the New Zealand population. International Journal of Drug Policy 18(3): 187-193, 2007. (29 refs.)

Introduction: High spending on illegal drug use can potentially provide insight into a range of drug related harm such as poor health, financial hardship, loss of opportunity, family neglect and income generating crime. Assessing the impact of high spending on drug use is complicated by the fact that many heavy drug users support their high expenditure on drug use through selling drugs. The aim of this paper is to estimate individual dollar expenditure and dollar earnings from cannabis in New Zealand. Methods: : As part of the 2003 New Zealand national household drug survey detailed data were collected on cannabis use and purchasing in the previous 12 months. Those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year were divided into two groups for further analysis: 'cannabis buyers' (i.e. those who only purchased sufficient cannabis for their own personal consumption needs); and 'cannabis dealers' (i.e. those who purchased large surpluses of cannabis for re-sale on to others). Results: : Seventy-two percent of those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year were 'cannabis buyers' only. Cannabis buyers spent a mean of S817 (NZD) each on cannabis in the previous year (median $120). Cannabis dealers spent a mean of $5988 each on cannabis in the preceding year (median $1250). Once we accounted for projected earnings from selling surplus cannabis, half of the cannabis dealers achieved a mean net annual financial gain of $2739, and the remaining half were left with a mean net annual financial loss of only $350 over a year. Overall. 81% of all those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year had spent less than 5% of their gross annual personal income on cannabis, with 14% of these making a net financial gain. The proportion of income spent on cannabis was hi best among those in the two 9 lowest income earning groups, where approximately 8% spent 20% or more of their income on cannabis. Both cannabis buyers and cannabis dealers spending 10% or more of their income on cannabis were four times more likely to be unemployed than the wider population. Conclusions: :For the vast majority of those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year, spending on cannabis had only a small impact on their total annual income levels. High spending on cannabis can potentially be substantially offset by earnings from selling surplus cannabis. High spending on cannabis had its greatest impact among low income earning groups where approximately one in 13 low income cannabis spenders were spending high proportions of their income on cannabis. There appeared to be some relationship between high cannabis spending and unemployment and this warrants further investigation.

Wodak A. What caused the recent reduction in heroin supply in Australia? (editorial). International Journal of Drug Policy 19(4): 279-286, 2008. (45 refs.)

Heroin availability and purity decreased and prices increased in Australia suddenly in early 2001. The heroin market in Australia has still not returned to the status quo ante after more than six years. Benefits of the heroin shortage, including a substantial reduction in drug overdose deaths and property crime, are generally considered to have outweighed adverse effects which included increased use of other drugs, especially stimulants, with a subsequent increase in aggression, violence and mental illness. Some commentators attributed the heroin shortage to a combination of factors, while an influential study highlighted the importance of supply control asserting that increased funding and improved effectiveness of domestic drug law enforcement produced critical heroin seizures which disrupted major syndicates, thereby producing the heroin shortage. Evidence to support a critical role for drug law enforcement in the heroin shortage is weak with some recent evidence contradicting key assertions used to support the supply control hypothesis. Although the most likely interpretation is still a combination of multiple factors, the most important factors appear to have been a substantial recent reduction in source opium cultivation and heroin production in Burma, but probably also increased heroin consumption en route through China and a switch from heroin to amphetamine production in Burma. This interpretation is consistent with the international experience of several recent decades in numerous countries where national heroin shortages have occurred rarely and generally only briefly, notwithstanding vigorous and very well resourced supply control efforts. The recent reduction in heroin supply in Australia, the most severe, longest lasting and best-documented heroin shortage in the world, cannot be confidently attributed, solely or largely, to improved domestic drug law enforcement. At best, domestic law enforcement may have made a small contribution compared to several other factors. Evaluationion of supply, demand and harm reduction should be held to the same standards.

Wong SC; Curtis JA; Wingert WE. Concurrent detection of heroin, fentanyl, and xylazine in seven drug-related deaths reported from the Philadelphia Medical Examiner's Office. Journal of Forensic Sciences 53(2): 495-498, 2008. (17 refs.)

Recreational drugs, such as cocaine and heroin, are often adulterated with other pharmacological agents to either enhance or diminish the drug effects. Between April 21, 2006 and August 8, 2006, the Philadelphia Medical Examiner's Office detected xylazine (a veterinary sedative) and fentanyl (a synthetic opioid) in specimens taken from seven cases. Initial immunoassay screening was performed on urine and blood for fentanyl, opiate, cocaine, phencyclidine (PCP), and benzodiazepines. All tests reported positive were confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. All seven xylazine positive cases tested positive for fentanyl and six cases tested positive for 6-acetylmorphine (a metabolite and definitive marker for heroin). The seventh case was positive for morphine and had a history of heroin abuse. Xylazine was present in urine in all seven cases and blood levels were detected in three cases. The blood concentrations ranged from trace to 130 ng/mL. Fentanyl was present in the blood and urine in each case and blood concentrations ranged from 4.7 to 47 ng/mL. Adulteration of illicit drugs has become an epidemic health concern for drug users. Healthcare professionals need to be aware of this issue, so the patients can be treated in an effective, timely manner.

Wood DM; Warren-Gash C; Ashraf T; Greene SL; Shather Z; Trivedy C et al. Medical and legal confusion surrounding gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and its precursors gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butanediol (1,4BD). QJM. An International Journal of Medicine 101(1): 23-29, 2008. (33 refs.)

Background: Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is used as a recreational drug, with significant associated morbidity and mortality; it is therefore a class C drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act (1971). However, its precursors gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butanediol (1,4BD) remain legally available despite having similar clinical effects. Aim: The aim of this study was to determine whether the relative proportions of self-reported ingestions of GHB or its precursors GBL and 1,4BD were similar to those seen in analysis of seized drugs. Design and methods: Retrospective review of our clinical toxicology database to identify all cases of self-reported recreational GHB, GBL and 1,4BD use associated with ED presentation in 2006. Additionally all seized substances on people attending local club venues were analysed by a Home Office approved laboratory to identify any illicit substances present. Results: In 2006, there were a total of 158 ED presentations, of which 150 (94.9) and 8 (5.1) were GHB and GBL self-reported ingestions respectively; 96.8 (153) were recreational use. Of the 418 samples seized, 225 (53.8) were in liquid form; 85 (37.8) contained GHB and 140 (62.2) contained GBL. None of the seized samples contained 1,4BD and there were no self-reported 1,4BD ingestions. Conclusions: Self-reported GHB ingestion was much more common than GBL ingestion, whereas GBL was more commonly found in the seized samples. These differences suggest that GBL use may be more common than previously thought and we suggest that there should be further debate about the legal status of the precursors of GHB.

Wortham C-L. Methamphetamine and cocaine manufacturing effects on the environment and agriculture. San Joaquin Agricultural Law Review 17: 343-359, 2008. (186 legal refs.)

Summary: ... In addition to the negative financial effects on farmers, cocaine production has a detrimental effect on Colombian agriculture and the environment. ... Discussion will include financial assistance provided to the Colombian government by the U.S. federal government for eradication of coca bushes, and compensation paid to Colombian farmers for destroyed crops and livestock. ... Meth cookers dump the waste in streams and drainage systems, and the chemicals absorb into the soil and get into ground water. ... It will decrease or eliminate clean up costs and environmental testing fees; however it will not compensate farmers for lost livestock, crops, or farm chemicals. ... When coca farmers burn the rain forests, they release excessive amounts of methane, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxide, which are all greenhouse gases. ... This increases the soil infertility and soil loss, which increases deforestation as coca farmers move their crop and destroy more trees, creating a soil erosion and deforestation cycle. ... Coca farmers dump millions of liters of coca processing waste in streams and rivers. ... Coca farmers are contributing to a loss of the biological diversity by destroying the forests and habitats of seventy to ninety percent of the world's species.

Wouters M; Korf DJ. Access to licensed cannabis supply and the separation of markets policy in the Netherlands. Journal of Drug Issues 39(3): 627-651, 2009. (37 refs.)

In the Netherlands, small amounts of cannabis can be lawfully sold to consumers in so-called coffee shops. Many communities in the country do not have coffee shops, and users under 18 years of age are not allowed to enter coffee shops. A field sample of 773 current cannabis users were interviewed in seven Dutch cities, two without any coffee shop, five varying in coffee shop density. The vast majority (n = 665; 86.0%) buy their own cannabis, and more than 70% of the cannabis is bought in licensed coffee shops. In logistic regression analyses, three variables were significantly and independently associated with buying from unlicensed suppliers: coffee shop density, age, and sex. With higher coffee shop density it was less likely to buy outside of coffee shops. Under-age buyers were more than twice as likely to buy their cannabis from unlicensed dealers. Males were more likely to buy their cannabis from unlicensed sellers than females. A substantial proportion of unlicensed suppliers sell other drugs as well, thereby increasing the risk of being offered hard drugs when buying soft drugs. This risk is greater for minors than for adults, since a higher proportion of minors use unlicensed selling points.

Yang RM; Li L; Feng J; Lai SS; Lin BQ; Yu T et al. Heroin body packing: Clearly discerning drug packets using CT. Southern Medical Journal 102(5): 470-475, 2009

Background: To determine if heroin body packing has occurred using computed tomography (CT), and to evaluate the role of CT in screening such cases. Methods: We collected 158 cases of suspected drug packers' imaging materials (all underwent CT, 42 cases were imaged using plain x-ray film) from September 5, 2005 to April 23, 2008. Abdominal-pelvic CT appearances (shape, size, number, location and density) and abdominal plain x-ray film manifestations were retrospectively observed for those who were finally confirmed as heroin body packers through the passing of evacuated drug packets. Results: Among 158 cases of suspected drug packers in our study, 124 cases were finally diagnosed as heroin body packers. This was consistent with the CT results. However, there were 2 false-negative cases of abdominal imaging taken with plain x-ray film. All of the evacuated heroin body packets were produced mechanically. CT and plain film characteristic findings included the presence of uniform shape, varied density, and well-defined round or ovoid intra-luminal foreign-body shadows arranged closely along the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and/or vagina. We also found that the "air-ring sign" and "onion sign" were valuable characteristics that were seen on the CT scan, which helped to positively confirm the detection of heroin packets. Conclusion: Heroin body packing has clearly defined diagnostic features that can be seen with CT. Furthermore, conventional abdominal-pelvic CT is the imaging modality of choice in the evaluation of suspected body packers.

Note: This is a special report prepared for the Canadian Parliament's Senate Special Committee On Illegal Drugs.