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CORK Bibliography: Criminal Justice System

60 citations. January 2009 to present

Prepared: September 2009

Anglin MD; Brown BS; Dembo R; Leukefeld C. Criminality and addiction: Selected issues for future policies, practice, and research. Journal of Drug Issues 39(1): 89-99, 2009. (43 refs.)

The high cost of incarceration and a general confidence in the effectiveness of drug abuse treatment have led many states to adopt community-based drug abuse treatment as part of, or as an alternative to, incarceration. Community re-entry and aftercare have therefore received increasing attention from both practitioners and researchers. This article examines possibilities for encouraging change in both adult and juvenile justice treatment. Four issues are highlighted: (1) relapse and aftercare, (2) co-occurring disorder, (3) juvenile justice programming, and (4) women's treatment. The success of U. S. drug treatment policy depends on a capacity to resolve these and related issues.

Buzina N; Goreta M; Jukic V; Peko-Covic I; Majdancic Z. Indications for psychiatric safety measures: A retrospective study. Collegium Antropologicum 33(1): 213-216, 2009. (23 refs.)

The aim of this article has been designed to investigate the influence of particular diagnostic categories on recommendations for safety measures, and to investigate the impact of constellatory factors, as the states of acute alcoholism, acute intoxication by psychoactive drugs and intense affect, on the recommendations for safety measures. The sample consisted of 120 examinees forensically expertised at the Center for Forensic Psychiatry of the Psychiatric Hospital Vrapce in the period from January 1, 1998 to December 31, 1999, and evaluated as less responsible according to the new Penal Code. All the examinees had the same legal presumptions for safety measures (decreased responsibility). The sample was divided into two groups: a group of examinees for whom a safety measure had been recommended and a group without such recommendations. The basic methodological instrument was a specially designed questionnaire with 137 items. Regarding socio-demographic characteristics, no statistically significant differences existed between the two groups taking into account age, gender, level of education and marital status. The diagnosis of personality disorder, as the first one, did not influence recommendations for safety measures. Alcohol and drug abuse were statistically significantly present in the group with recommended measures as second diagnoses, and besides influencing responsibility, had an impact on the recommendation of safety measures. An intense affect influenced the reduction of responsibility, but not the suggestion of safety measure, while alcohol and drug intoxications, besides affecting responsibility, had an impact on the suggestion of safety measure. The decisive impact of dependence influenced the recommendation for safety measures.

Chandler RK; Fletcher BW; Volkow ND. Treating drug abuse and addiction in the criminal justice system improving public health and safety. Journal of the American Medical Association 301(2): 183-190, 2009. (82 refs.)

Despite increasing evidence that addiction is a treatable disease of the brain, most individuals do not receive treatment. Involvement in the criminal justice system often results from illegal drug- seeking behavior and participation in illegal activities that reflect, in part, disrupted behavior ensuing from brain changes triggered by repeated drug use. Treating drug- involved offenders provides a unique opportunity to decrease substance abuse and reduce associated criminal behavior. Emerging neuroscience has the potential to transform traditional sanction- oriented public safety approaches by providing new therapeutic strategies against addiction that could be used in the criminal justice system. We summarize relevant neuroscientific findings and evidence- based principles of addiction treatment that, if implemented in the criminal justice system, could help improve public heath and reduce criminal behavior.

Chassin L; Knight G; Vargas-Chanes D; Losoya SH; Naranjo D. Substance use treatment outcomes in a sample of male serious juvenile offenders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 36(2): 183-194, 2009. (46 refs.)

This study examined drug-treatment-related reductions in alcohol and marijuana use, cigarette smoking, and nondrug offending among male adolescents who bad been adjudicated of a serious (almost exclusively felony) offense. Results indicated that the "real-world" drug treatments that these adolescents experienced had significant effects on substance use, which could not be explained solely by incarceration in controlled environments. However, effects on cigarette smoking and criminal offending were found only for treatments that included family involvement. Results suggest that involving families in adolescents' treatment may be useful for promoting desistence from criminal offending in this population.

Colins O; Vermeiren R; Vreugdenhil C; Schuyten G; Broekaert E; Krabbendam A. Are psychotic experiences among detained juvenile offenders explained by trauma and substance use? Drug and Alcohol Dependence 100(1-2): 39-46, 2009. (59 refs.)

Objective: High rates of psychotic experiences among detained adolescents have been reported. However, the significance of psychotic experiences in detained juveniles is still poorly understood. The Current study, therefore, (1) examines whether psychotic experiences could be explained by substance use and/or traumatic experiences, and (2) investigates this objective without taking into account the frequently occurring paranoia-related symptoms that may not be psychosis-related in detained minors. Method: Data were derived from 231 detained adolescents. By means of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, psychotic experiences, life-threatening events and substance use were assessed while the Child Traumatic Questionnaire was used for a history of abuse and neglect. Results: In univariate logistic regression analyses, having psychotic experiences was positively associated with substance-related (e.g. past year intense marihuana use) and trauma-related (e.g. emotional abuse) variables. However, Without taken paranoia-related experiences into account, different associations between psychotic experiences and substance-related and/or trauma-related variables were found. After building best fitting models, logistic regression analyses demonstrated a preponderance of trauma-related over substance-related variables in predicting the number of psychotic experiences (i.e. 0, 1-2, >2). Conclusion: These findings suggest that psychotic experiences in detained adolescents may be explained bit trauma and substance use. In addition, paranoia-related experiences seemed to be particularly associated with emotional abuse.

Cooper CS. Substance abuse and addiction in Family Courts. Adolescent drug users: The justice system in missing and important opportunity. Family Court Review 47(April): 239-250, 2009. (47 refs.)

HIGHLIGHT: A significant number of youth and young adults who use drugs have fallen through the cracks of our juvenile and adult justice systems in terms of receiving any meaningful services. The situation is due to a number of factors, including the reliance on adolescent self-reporting utilized by most of the research, the failure of justice and other systems to routinely assess youth for either current drug use or indicia of drug use (e.g., "resiliency" or "protective" factors), and confidentiality and other restrictions pertaining to access to juvenile justice system information. Yet, retrospective reviews of drug use patterns for adults in the criminal justice system make it clear that drug use is beginning for most of these offenders during adolescence or before. This article urges (1) juvenile courts to develop mechanisms for systematically screening youth who come into the system for drug use and/or propensities for drug use and (2) adult courts to embark on similar strategies and to develop adolescent tracks that would be geared to providing the services these youth (despite their chronological age) need and would otherwise not receive in the adult system.

da Silva FP; de Pinho RSN; de Mello MT; de Bruin VMS; de Bruin PFC. Risk factors for depression in truck drivers. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 44(2): 125-129, 2009. (42 refs.)

Objective: Depression is a major public health problem. Work stress is associated with depression and workers whose jobs impose high levels of psychological demands, such as truck drivers, may be at increased risk. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and correlates of depression in truck drivers. Method This was a cross-sectional study of 300 male truck drivers. Presence and severity of depression were assessed by the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview followed by the Beck Depression Inventory Short Form. Relevant demographic, clinical and occupational data were collected using a purpose-built questionnaire. Results: The prevalence of depression among truck drivers was 13.6%. Multivariate analysis showed that being 45 years or older had a protective effect (OR = 0.19; P = 0.02), whereas low educational level (OR = 3.03; P = 0.01), use of stimulants (OR = 5.03; P < 0.01) and wage-earning (OR = 2.84; P = 0.01), as opposed to self-employment, increased the risk for depression. Conclusions: Truck drivers are at increased risk for depression when compared to the general population. Efforts to increase awareness of this problem and to limit the use of stimulants, as well as measures to improve job satisfaction, particularly among the wage-earning drivers, may have a positive impact on mental health in these workers.

Davidson H. Substance abuse and addiction in family Courts: When it happens in a family: Aiding parents of substance-abusing adolescents. Family Court Review 47(April): 253-262, 2009. (44 refs.)

The article explores such issues as parents finding illegal drugs in the house or on their teen's person, various modalities of treatment and how family members are involved, how parents might secure residential evaluations for their youth without the necessity of juvenile court involvement (and why this is important), concerns about placing youth in unlicensed residential treatment facilities, health insurance coverage issues, home drug testing, and how past American Bar Association (ABA) policy on youth drug and alcohol abuse is being followed up with a new ABA project to aid parents of substance-abusing teenagers and their families. ... One-third of the teens who reported knowing a prescription drug abuser said that kids who abused prescription drugs got them from home, the medicine cabinet, or surreptitiously from parents. ... Finally, the ABA called for the preferred use of appropriate in-home and community-based prevention and intervention programs for at-risk children and youth, by having state law require enhanced governmental support so that families will have better access to these programs. ... Most private health insurance plans also impose benefit limitations and cost-sharing requirements on substance abuse and mental health services that are greater than those imposed on general medical services. It describes how past American Bar Association (ABA) policy on youth drug and alcohol abuse is being followed up with a new ABA project to aid parents of substance-abusing teenagers and their families.

De Leon G; Wexler H. The therapeutic community for addictions: An evolving knowledge base. Journal of Drug Issues 39(1): 167-177, 2009. (24 refs.)

The therapeutic community (TC) has become an established treatment approach serving thousands of substance abusers in community, institutional, and other settings. This article summarizes the research that contributed to the acceptance and growth of TCs and laid the groundwork for the establishment of TCs for substance abusers in correctional settings. The TC knowledge base has contributed to the revival of a rehabilitation philosophy in correctional policy, which is described in the second section. The reflections of the authors who have collaborated for about 40 years are provided at the end of the paper.

Dembo R; Belenko S; Childs K; Wareham J. Drug use and sexually transmitted diseases among female and male arrested youths. Journal of Biobehavioral Medicine 32(2): 129-141, 2009. (75 refs.)

Knowledge of the rates and correlates of juvenile offenders' sexually transmitted diseases (STD) has been limited to samples of incarcerated youths comprised mostly of males. Data collected on 442 female and 506 male youths processed at a centralized intake facility enabled us to study this important public health problem among a sample of juvenile offenders at the front end of the justice system. Female-male, multi-group latent class analyses identified two subgroups, High Risk and Lower Risk, of youths described by a latent construct of risk based on drug test results, STD test results, and a classification for the seriousness of arrest charge. The results found: (1) a similar classification distinguished High Risk and Lower Risk male and female youths, and (2) important gender group differences in sexual risk related factors (e.g., substance use during sexual encounters). Among the youths in this sample who tested positive for an STD, 66% of the girls and 57% of the boys were released back into the community after arrest. Overall, our findings raise serious public health and social welfare concerns, for both the youths and the community. Prevention and intervention implications of these findings are also discussed.

Edwards G; Babor T; Darke S; Hall W; Marsden J; Miller P et al. Drug trafficking: Time to abolish the death penalty. (editorial). Addiction 104(8): 1267-1269, 2009. (13 refs.)

Eldridge GD; Cropsey KL. Smoking bans and restrictions in US prisons, and jails: Consequences for incarcerated women. (editorial). American Journal of Preventive Medicine 37(2, Supplement S): S179-S180, 2009. (16 refs.)

Fletcher BW; Lehman WEK; Wexler HK; Melnick G; Taxman FS; Young DW. Measuring collaboration and integration activities in criminal justice and substance abuse treatment agencies. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 103(Supplement 1): S54-S64, 2009. (73 refs.)

Individuals with Substance abuse problems who are involved in the criminal justice system frequently need community-based drug and alcohol abuse treatment and other services. To reduce the risk of relapse to illicit drugs and criminal recidivism, criminal justice agencies may need to establish collaborations with substance abuse treatment and other community-based service providers. Although there are many variations of interorganizational relationships, the nature of these interagency collaborations among justice agencies and treatment providers has received little systematic study. As a first step, we present an instrument to measure interagency collaboration and integration activities using items in the National Criminal justice Treatment Practices Surveys conducted as part of the Criminal justice Drug Abuse Treatment Studies (CJ-DATS). Collaboration and integration activities related to drug-involved offenders were examined between substance abuse treatment providers, Correctional agencies, and the judiciary. The measurement scale reliably identified two levels of collaboration: less structured, informal networking and coordination and more structured and formalized levels of cooperation and collaboration. An illustration of the use of the systems integration tool is presented.

Freeborn BA. Arrest Avoidance: Law Enforcement and the Price of Cocaine. Journal of Law & Economics 52(1): 19-40, 2009. (22 refs.)

Contrary to one goal of drug law enforcement, cocaine prices decreased between the years 1986 and 2000. This paper discusses how arrest avoidance behavior may affect cocaine consumer and dealer response to law enforcement. Dealers avoid arrest by making quick and easy sales; thus, pure-gram price is negatively related to dealer enforcement. Consumers avoid arrest by accepting high prices rather than searching for lower prices. Thus, pure-gram price is positively related to consumer enforcement. Because the implications from arrest avoidance conflict with traditional models of how enforcement should affect prices, I also empirically examine the relationship. Using purchase-level data from the Drug Enforcement Administration and legal penalty data, I find a negative, significant relationship between dealer enforcement and pure-gram price and a positive, significant relationship between consumer enforcement and pure-gram price. Both are consistent with the intuition of arrest avoidance.

Gray MK; Brown KL. Drinking and drug use by college students: Comparing criminal justice majors and non-majors. Journal of Criminal Justice 37(3): 234-240, 2009. (41 refs.)

The current research examined drinking and drug use among college students. Using a self-report survey of students from a midwestern university, the frequency of alcohol use, binge drinking, and drug use were explored. Particular attention was paid to drinking behaviors and drug use among Criminal justice (CJ) students compared to students from other majors. Differences were found between CJ and non-CJ students especially in terms of drinking behavior; fewer differences were found between majors in terms of drug use. Issues of moral authority were examined as well as issues of employability. Implications for CJ students, faculty and advisors are discussed.

Hakansson A; Schlyter F; Berglund M. Characteristics of primary amphetamine users in Sweden: A criminal justice population examined with the Addiction Severity Index. European Addiction Research 15(1): 10-18, 2009. (70 refs.)

Background/Aims: Characteristics of primary amphetamine, heroin and cocaine users were compared in a criminal justice population. Methods: 7,085 clients with suspected or reported substance use were studied using the Addiction Severity Index. Variables separating amphetamine, heroin and cocaine users were analyzed in stepwise logistic regression. Results: There were considerably more primary amphetamine users (n = 1,396) than heroin (n = 392) and cocaine (n = 119) users. Amphetamine users were older, a more rural population, and less likely to be non-Nordic immigrants. Compared with heroin, amphetamine use was associated with older age, Nordic origin, nonurban residence, memory/concentration problems, parental alcohol problems, and less history of other opioid use, overdose and detoxification. Compared with cocaine, amphetamine use was associated with older age, Nordic origin, nonurban residence, injecting, tobacco and institution treatment. Overlap of drug use between groups was relatively uncommon. Conclusion: This pattern of amphetamine use, common among Swedish criminals, has relatively distinct boundaries from heroin and cocaine use, commonly involves injecting, and differs from other countries. Psychiatric problems and alcohol heredity were common, and evidence-based treatment for amphetamine users is needed. The connection between amphetamine use and criminal behavior is insufficiently understood and should be further addressed.

Hall EA; Prendergast ML; Roll JM; Warda U. Reinforcing abstinence and treatment participation among offenders in a drug diversion program: Are vouchers effective. Criminal Justice and Behavior 36(9): 935-953, 2009. (52 refs.)

This study assessed a 26-week voucher-based intervention to reinforce abstinence and participation in treatment-related activities among substance-abusing offenders court referred to outpatient treatment under drug diversion legislation (California's Substance Abuse and Crime Prevention Act). Standard treatment consisted of criminal justice supervision and an evidence-based model for treating stimulant abuse. Participants were randomly assigned to four groups, standard treatment (ST) only, ST plus vouchers for testing negative, ST plus vouchers for performing treatment plan activities, and ST plus vouchers for testing negative and/or performing treatment plan activities. Results indicate that voucher-based reinforcement of negative urines and of treatment plan tasks (using a flat reinforcement schedule) showed no statistically significant effects on measures of retention or drug use relative to the standard treatment protocol. It is likely that punishment and reinforcement operating within the criminal justice context had a stronger impact on participants' treatment retention and drug use than the relatively low-value vouchers awarded as part of the treatment protocol.

Hammond CJ; Bond JW; Grant TD. The effects of substance use on offender crime scene behavior. Journal of Forensic Sciences 54(2): 376-381, 2009. (27 refs.)

Substance use has an effect on an individual's propensity to commit acquisitive crime with recent studies showing substance users more likely to leave forensic material at a crime scene. An examination of acquisitive crime solved in Northamptonshire, U.K., during 2006 enabled 70 crime scene behavior characteristics to be analyzed for substance and nonsubstance use offenders. Logistical regression analyses have identified statistically significant crime scene behavior predictors that were found to be either present at or absent from the crime scene when the offender was a substance user. Most significant predictors present were indicative of a lack of preparation by the offender, irrational behavior, and a desire to steal high value, easily disposed of, property. Most significant predictors absent from the crime scene were indicative of more planning, preparation, and execution by the offender. Consideration is given to how this crime scene behavior might be used by police investigators to identify offenders.

Hatcher SS; Toldson IA; Godette DC; Richardson JB. Mental health, substance abuse, and HIV disparities in correctional settings: Practice and policy implications for African Americans. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 20(2, Supplement S): 6-16, 2009

Mental health challenges, substance use disorders, and HIV/AIDS disproportionately affect Black people in correctional settings. Culturally responsive practice and equitable policy is predicated upon research that explores the burden, prevalence, and mortality of these public health concerns on the health and social well-being of African Americans in the correctional setting. This paper has three sections: (1) mental health; (2) substance abuse; and (3) HIV/AIDS. Each section summarizes current treatment issues unique to correctional settings, and provides recommendations for enhancing programs and policy to meet the needs of Black people who have been arrested, detained, incarcerated, paroled, or released. Further, we make recommendations for how interdisciplinary researchers and health care/treatment providers can engage in science-guided advocacy to address these issues and reduce related disparities experienced by people of African ancestry.

Hellman D. Proscuting doctors for trusting patients. George Mason Law Review 16(Spring): 701-745, 2009. (192 refs.)

Introduction Prosecutions of physicians under drug trafficking laws in connec-tion with their prescribing controlled substances are on the rise. ... If so, the pain doctor's professional judgment that medical practice allows or requires that he trust his patient's report of pain arguably constitutes both his subjective view about what medical practice ought to be and his good faith belief about what are the generally accepted standards of medical practice. ... Hurwitz's lawyers argued to the trial court that this divergence from the classical notion of willful blindness made giving such instructions inappropriate: "willful blindness requires affirmative steps to avoid knowledge here, knowledge of patients' abuse and diversion not merely the defendant's failure to see that which is 'obvious.'" ... The lawyer's contrived ignorance about the fact that her client's testimony may be a lie is different from the courier's contrived ignorance that the pouch he has just been paid a significant amount of money to carry into the country may contain drugs. ... The fact that the court emphasized this factor suggests that if a legitimate interest of the defendant were compromised by allowing willful blindness to substitute for knowledge, then willful blindness instructions would not be appropriate. ... Compare the case of a courier being paid money to carry a package that he is aware may contain drugs, with a friend carrying a package for another friend and the car-rying-friend is aware it may contain drugs. ... While this argument is preliminary in nature, its purpose is to make plausible the claim that doctors are morally justified in trusting their patients' reports of pain, and this trust thus provides the good reason needed to escape criminal liability for willful blindness to patient diversion of drugs.

Henderson CE; Taxman FS. Competing values among criminal justice administrators: The importance of substance abuse treatment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 103(Supplement 1): S7-S16, 2009. (58 refs.)

This study applied latent class analysis (LCA) to examine heterogeneity in criminal justice administrators' attitudes toward the importance of substance abuse treatment relative to other programs and services commonly offered in criminal justice settings. The Study used data collected from wardens, probation and/or parole administrators, and other justice administrators as part of the National Criminal justice Treatment Practices Survey (NCJTP), and includes both adult criminal and juvenile justice samples. Results of the LCA Suggested that administrators fell into four different latent classes: ( I) those who place a high importance on substance abuse treatment relative to other programs and services, (2) those who place equal importance on substance abuse treatment and other programs and services, (3) those who Value other programs and services moderately more than substance abuse treatment, and (4) those Who Value other Programs and services much more than substance abuse treatment. Latent class membership was in turn associated with the extent to which evidence-based substance abuse treatment practices were being used in the facilities, the region of the country in which the administrator worked, and attitudes toward rehabilitating drug-using offenders. The findings have implications for future research focused on the impact that administrators' attitudes have on service provision as well as the effectiveness of knowledge dissemination and diffusion models.

Henderson CE; Young DW; Farrell J; Taxman FS. Associations among state and local organizational contexts: Use of evidence-based practices in the criminal justice system. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 103(Supplement 1): S23-S32, 2009. (68 refs.)

This study used hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to examine the extent to which the organizational characteristics of state corrections agencies and local criminal justice facilities interacted in their associations with the extent to which local facilities are using evidence-based substance abuse treatment practices (EBPs). The study used data collected from two nationally representative surveys - one of state executives and the other of local prison wardens, justice administrators, and treatment directors - which were conducted as part of the National Criminal Justice Treatment Practices survey [NCJTP: Taxman, F.S., Young, D., Wiersenna, B., Mitchell, S., Rhodes, A.G., 2007. The National CriminaI Justice Treatment Practices Survey: Multi-level Survey methods and procedures. J. Substance. Abuse Treat. 32, 225-238], and includes both adult criminal and juvenile justice samples. Results indicated that several state organizational characteristics were either associated with more EBP use or interacted with local organizational characteristics in associations with EBP use, including: (I) systems integration at the state level was associated with greater EBP use; (2) state staffing adequacy and stability accentuated the association between local training and resources for new programs and EBP use (i.e., in states with better staffing, the relationship between training/resources and EBP use in local facilities was stronger): and (3) state executives' attitudes regarding the missions and goals of corrections tended to diminish the extent to which corresponding local adminstrator attitudes were associated with EBP use. The study has implications for future research focused on EBP diffusion and implementation in correctional environments, particularly attempts to influence EBP use by working through state agencies.

Howard C; Gilmore S; Robertson J; Peakall R. A cannabis sativa STR genotype database for Australian seizures: Forensic applications and limitations. Journal of Forensic Sciences 54(3): 556-563, 2009. (41 refs.)

A genetic database was established with the aim of documenting the genetic diversity of Cannabis sativa in Australia for future utilization in forensic investigations. The database consisted of genotypes at 10 validated short tandem repeat loci for 510 plants representing drug seizures from across Australia and 57 fiber samples. A total of 106 alleles and 314 different genotypes were detected. All fiber samples exhibited unique genotypes while 55% of the drug samples shared a genotype with one or more samples. Shared genotypes were mostly found within seizures; however, some genotypes were found among seizures. Statistical analysis indicated that genotype sharing was a consequence of clonal propagation rather than a lack of genetic resolution. Thus, the finding of shared genotypes among seizures is likely due to either a common supplier, or direct links among seizures. Notwithstanding the potential intelligence information provided by genetic analysis of C. sativa, our database analysis also reveals some present limitations.

Impinen A; Rahkonen O; Karjalainen K; Lintonen T; Lillsunde P; Ostamo A. Substance use as a predictor of driving under the influence (DUI) rearrests. A 15-year retrospective study. Traffic Injury Prevention 10(3): 220-226, 2009. (37 refs.)

Background: Recidivism is a major problem in the prevention of DUI offenses. It is suggested that impairing substances used by drivers may relate to a higher risk of recidivism. This study aims to determine rearrest rates in different groups of arrested drivers focusing on different substances found in the blood. Material and Methods: The data utilized were obtained from the register of suspected DUI offenders maintained by the Finnish National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL). Data were available for the 15-year period between 1993 and 2007. The number of rearrests was traced from the individuals' ID codes. The mean blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of the DUI offenders was studied as well as their age at the time of the first arrest. Rearrest rates according to alcohol and drug findings were estimated using survival analysis methods. Results: At the time of the first arrest, the drivers with a single DUI arrest were older and had a lower BAC than those who had a later arrest. The proportion of female drivers decreased as the number of rearrests increased. Drivers with drugs only or a combination of drugs and alcohol had a significantly higher rearrest rate than drivers with alcohol alone. Drivers with amphetamines only had the highest rearrest rates. Findings of benzodiazepine and opioids alone did not increase the risk of rearrest in the long run. Young age, male sex, high blood alcohol level, and arrest during the nighttime and during weekdays constituted a higher risk for rearrest. Conclusions: A third of those suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs are rearrested within 15 years. Drugs, especially amphetamines, are a risk factor for faster rearrest. These results show that the groups at risk of recidivism can be pinpointed. Interventions to prevent recidivism should be developed particularly for drugged drivers. Substance abuse beginning in adolescence seems to be a greater risk.

Jermain JD; Evans HK. Analyzing salvia divinorum and its active ingredient salvinorin A utilizing thin layer chromatography and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Journal of Forensic Sciences 54(3): 612-616, 2009. (4 refs.)

In recent years, Salvia divinorum has become a major focus by state legislatures throughout the United States looking to prohibit the sale of the psychoactive plant. After researching testing procedures presented in the literature and those employed by crime laboratories throughout the country, it was decided that thin layer chromatography (TLC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were the methods to use to analyze plant material for salvinorin A. With TLC, salvinorin A was detected from extracted plant material and was easily distinguishable from 13 other Salvia species as well as Cannabis sativa L. (marijuana). When using GC/MS, salvinorin A was best extracted from plant material with chloroform at ambient temperature when using a nonpolar solvent and acetone at ambient temperature when using a polar solvent. By utilizing these techniques, criminalists are now able to confirm the presence of salvinorin A in a submitted plant material suspected to be Salvia divinorum.

Kinner SA; George J; Campbell G; Degenhardt L. Crime, drugs and distress: Patterns of drug use and harm among criminally involved injecting drug users in Australia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 33(3): 223-227, 2009. (48 refs.)

Objective: Explore demographic characteristics, patterns of drug use and psychological distress among regular injecting drug users (IDUs) in Australia, as a function of recent criminal activity. Methods: Structured, face-to-face interviews with 909 regular IDUs recruited from every capital city in Australia, between June and August 2007, as part of the annual Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS). Criminal activity in the past month was assessed using the Opiate Treatment Index (OTI); psychological distress was assessed using the Kessler psychological distress scale (K10). Results: Forty-three per cent of IDUs reported recent (past month) criminal activity. Those who had committed crime recently were younger, exhibited riskier patterns of drug use, reported more drug-related problems and were more likely to exhibit significant psychological distress. In a multivariate model the most important correlates of recent criminal activity were use of more than three drug types recently (OR=2.66, 95% CI 1.96-3.61), initiation to injecting before age 18 (OR=1.93, 95% CI 1.42-2.61) and daily drug injection (OR=1.55, 95% CI 1.13-2.13). Conclusions and Implications: Criminal activity among regular IDUs in Australia is not restricted to a particular demographic group, and is a marker for riskier patterns of drug use, greater drug-related harm and psychological distress. Contact between IDUs and the criminal justice system provides opportunities for the delivery of targeted harm reduction messages, and for screening and diversion into appropriate treatment services.

Kohler D; Heinzen H; Hinrichs G; Huchzermeier C. The prevalence of mental disorders in a German sample of male incarcerated juvenile offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 53(2): 211-227, 2009. (45 refs.)

The current study investigated the prevalence of mental disorders among incarcerated juvenile offenders in Germany and sought to identify clinically relevant subgroups. In sum, 149 newly incarcerated male juvenile delinquents (M age = 19 years) were included. Diagnostic tools included the German version of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV and the Psychopathy Checklist - Screening Version. The most prevalent diagnoses in the sample included conduct disorders (81%), Cluster B personality disorders (up to 62%), and substance- related disorders (up to 60%). Moreover, psychopathic features were found among 21% of the participants. Cluster analysis distinguished three subgroups among this group of young offenders. The most problematic consisted of juveniles with multiple psychopathology, including antisocial traits, personality pathology, higher scores on the Psychopathy Checklist, as well as multiple substance abuse. Study outcomes are discussed in light of their implications for the development of effective treatment for juvenile offenders.

Krinsky CS; Lathrop SL; Brown P; Nolte KB. Drugs, detention, and death: A study of the mortality of recently released prisoners. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 30(1): 6-9, 2009. (21 refs.)

It has been theorized that drug abusers recently released from prison have an increased risk of fatal drug overdose. The objective of this study was to determine whether persons released from prison in the state of New Mexico have an increased risk of death due to unintentional drug overdose in the time immediately after release from prison. A total of 96 people were identified who had been released from prison and subsequently suffered an unnatural death in 2001 through 2003. Among those who had drug-caused deaths, there was a significantly increased risk of dying in the first 2 weeks after release versus the subsequent 10 weeks RR = 3.08 (P < 0.001, 95% CI: 1.83-5.16). For those who died in the first 2 months after release, there was an increased risk of fatal drug overdose compared with dying of other unnatural causes (P = 0.025). Of those who died of fatal drug overdoses within the first 2 months, the average incarceration time was significantly longer than those who lived longer than 2 months after release (P = 0.021) and they were more likely to have used opiates (P < 0.0001) and sedatives (P = 0.01). Prisoners are at an increased risk of a fatal unintentional drug overdose immediately after release. The time surrounding release provides an opportunity for education on the risks of accidental overdose and the development of interventions to mitigate these risks.

Kubiak SP; Arfken CL; Gibson ES. Departments of Corrections as purchasers of community-based treatment: A national study. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 36(4): 420-427, 2009

Community-based substance abuse treatment for offenders has been shown to reduce both substance use and recidivism. One strategy to ensure treatment availability for offenders is to have each state's Department of Corrections (DOC) fund treatment directly. Purchasing treatment implies regulation, but DOC as both a purchaser and regulator of community-based services has been underexamined. This national survey of administrators from the Single State Authority (SSA) and DOC in each state found DOCs purchase treatment in 35 states, with most states purchasing it directly from community-based providers utilizing a variety of funding sources. Fewer states reported DOCs purchased ancillary set-vices than SSAs (68% vs. 81%). Although both DOCs and SSAs had workforce and program requirements, there were differences within and between states. Most (41/42) SSA administrators reported a strong relationship with DOC. This report represents the first step in describing the availability, mechanisms, and regulations of these two publicly funded community-based treatment systems.

Larney S; Dolan K. A literature review of international implementation of opioid substitution treatment in prisons: Equivalence of care? (review). European Addiction Research 15(2): 107-112, 2009. (52 refs.)

Background/Aims: Opioid substitution treatment (OST) is an effective treatment for heroin dependence. The World Health Organization has recommended that OST be implemented in prisons because of its role in reducing drug injection and associated problems such as HIV transmission. The aim of this paper was to examine the extent to which OST has been implemented in prisons internationally. Methods: Literature review. Results: As of January 2008, OST had been implemented in prisons in at least 29 countries or territories. For 20 of those countries, the proportion of all prisoners in OST could be calculated, with results ranging from less than 1% to over 14%. At least 37 countries offer OST in community settings, but not prisons. Conclusion: This study has identified an increase in the international implementation of OST in prisons. However, there remain large numbers of prisoners who are unable to access OST, even in countries that provide such programs. This raises issues of equivalence of care for prisoners and HIV prevention in prisons.

Lehman WEK; Fletcher BW; Wexler HK; Melnick G. Organizational factors and collaboration and integration activities in criminal justice and drug abuse treatment agencies. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 103(Supplement 1): S65-S72, 2009. (36 refs.)

Despite strong interest in improving collaborations between correctional and substance abuse treatment organizations, there is a lack of empirical data describing the existing practices. The current study used a national survey of correctional administrators to examine organizational factors related to cross-agency collaboration and integration activities between corrections and substance abuse treatment organization. Using a measure of collaboration that scaled cross-agency activities from less structured, informal networking and coordination to more structured and formalized levels of cooperation and collaboration, we found that different correctional settings (e.g., community corrections, jails, prisons) differed significantly in terms of their collaborative activities with substance abuse treatment agencies. We also found that the organizational characteristics that were associated with different levels of collaboration and integration differed across the Correctional settings. Further research is needed to better understand how and why correctional agencies decide to formalize collaborative arrangements with treatment agencies and whether these efforts lead to more favorable outcomes.

Lin SC; Su CY; Chou FHC; Chen SP; Huang JJ; Wu GTE et al. Domestic violence recidivism in high-risk Taiwanese offenders after the completion of violence treatment programs. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 20(3): 458-472, 2009. (39 refs.)

A case-control trial enrolled 70 high-risk domestic violence (DV) offenders under protective orders and court-ordered batterer treatment (study group) and 231 low-medium risk DV offenders under protective orders only. Recidivism was defined as any recurrence of violence by the offenders. These acts of violence included both physical and verbal violence, which were measured by interviewing the victims by telephone at three, six, and nine months after mandatory treatment for the study group or after adjudication of the protective order for the control group. There were no significant differences between the groups in terms of overall DV recidivism rate at the six-month and nine-month assessments, and no difference in physical violence at any assessment stage. However, the treated offenders showed greater reductions in the percentage of physical violence from the three-month to the six-month and the six-month to the nine-month follow-ups than non-treated offenders (43.0% vs. 35.1%, and 37.5% vs. 10%, respectively). Alcohol use was a significant variable in predicting recidivism. Thus the treated offenders demonstrated reductions in the rate of physical violence compared to the control group. As high-risk offenders are thought to be at risk of recidivism and more severe forms of DV, the authors suggest increasing resources and modifying treatment programs to suit the offenders' needs to prevent further violence, especially by those who abuse alcohol.

Magura S; Lee JD; Hershberger J; Joseph H; Marsch L; Shronshire C; Rosenblum A. Buprenorphine and methadone maintenance in jail and post-release: A randomized clinical trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 99(1-3): 222-230, 2009. (53 refs.)

Buprenorphine has rarely been administered as an opioid agonist maintenance therapy in a correctional setting. This study introduced buprenorphine maintenance in a large urban jail, Rikers Island in New York City. Hero in-dependent men not enrolled in community methadone treatment and sentenced to 10-90 days in jail (N=116) were voluntarily randomly assigned either to buprenorphine or methadone maintenance, the latter being the standard of care for eligible inmates at Rikers. Boprenorphine and methadone maintenance completion rates in jail were equally high, but the buprenorphine group reported for their designated post-release treatment in the community significantly more often than did the methadone group (48% vs. 14%, p<.001). Consistent with this result, prior to release from Rikers, buprenorphine patients stated an intention to continue treatment after release more often than did methadone patients (93% vs. 44%, p<.001). Buprenorphine patients were also less likely than methadone patients to withdraw voluntarily from medication while in jail (3% vs. 16%, p<.05). There were no post-release differences between the buprenorphine and methadone groups in self-reported relapse to illicit opioid use, self-reported re-arrests, self-reported severity of crime or re-incarceration in jail. After initiating opioid agonist treatment in jail, continuing buprenorphine maintenance in the community appears to be more acceptable to offenders than continuing methadone maintenance.

Martel M. 'They smell bad, have diseases, and are lazy': RCMP officers reporting on hippies in the late sixties. Canadian Historical Review 90(2): 215-245, 2009. (25 refs.)

At the end of the sixties, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) ordered officers engaged in undercover operations to send reports on drug users and especially hippies. This paper argues that collecting information on hippies was a useful weapon in the battle against softening penalties for marijuana offences since the federal police force was among the strongest opponents of legalizing or decriminalizing marijuana for recreational purposes. By depicting hippies in very negative terms, the RCMP was able to describe them as a threat and argue against their cultural, social, and political demands on the grounds that this was necessary to preserve society as it was.

Marvel F; Rowe CL; Colon-Perez L; DiClemente RJ; Liddle HA. Multidimensional Family Therapy HIV/STD Risk-Reduction Intervention: An Integrative Family-Based Model for Drug-Involved Juvenile Offenders. Family Process 48(1): 69-84, 2009. (49 refs.)

Drug and juvenile justice involved youths show remarkably high rates of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/sexually transmitted disease (STD) risk behaviors. However, existing interventions aimed at reducing adolescent HIV risk behavior have rarely targeted these vulnerable young adolescents, and many approaches focus on individual-level change without attention to family or contextual influences. We describe a new, family-based HIV/STD prevention model that embeds HIV/STD focused multifamily groups within an adolescent drug abuse and delinquency evidence-based treatment, Multidimensional Family Therapy (MDFT). The approach has been evaluated in a multisite randomized clinical trial with juvenile justice involved youths in the National Institute on Drug Abuse Criminal Justice Drug Abuse Treatment Studies (www.cjdats.org). Preliminary baseline to 6-month outcomes are promising. We describe research on family risk and protective factors for adolescent problem behaviors, and offer a rationale for family-based approaches to reduce HIV/STD risk in this population. We describe the development and implementation of the Multidimensional Family Therapy HIV/STD risk-reduction intervention (MDFT-HIV/STD) in terms of using multifamily groups and their integration in standard MDFT and also offers a clinical vignette. The potential significance of this empirically based intervention development work is high; MDFT-HIV/STD is the first model to address largely unmet HIV/STD prevention and sexual health needs of substance abusing juvenile offenders within the context of a family-oriented evidence-based intervention.

McCarty D; Chandler RK. Understanding the importance of organizational and system variables on addiction treatment services within criminal justice settings. (editorial). Drug and Alcohol Dependence 103(Supplement 1): S91-S93, 2009. (16 refs.)

NIDA's Criminal Justice Drug Abuse Treatment Studies (CJ-DATS) is the primary vehicle for testing emerging treatment interventions and fostering adoption of evidence-based therapies in criminal justice settings. The papers in this issue of Drug and Alcohol Dependence use data from the CJ-DATS National Criminal Justice Treatment practice Survey to explore the influence of organizational and system variables on access to addiction treatment and the types of services available within correctional settings. This essay provides context for the papers in this issue of Drug and Alcohol Dependence. Systems and organizational interventions that improve the delivery and quality of drug abuse treatment services are described and the potential to apply systems change thinking to addiction treatment services available in the criminal justice system is discussed. Each paper is described briefly. CJ-DATS is evolving to Support research at the organizational and systems level that facilitates the implementation and sustainability of research-supported treatments and business practices in criminal justice settings.

Melnick G; Ulaszek WR; Lin HJ; Wexler HK. When goals diverge: Staff consensus and the organizational climate. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 103(Supplement 1): S17-S22, 2009. (46 refs.)

A sample of correctional officers and prison substance abuse treatment staff collected by the National Criminal Justice Treatment Practices Survey is used to provide an exploratory Study of an aspect of organizational culture consisting of consensus (agreement) among prison personnel regarding their beliefs about rehabilitation in the presence of conflicting Organizational goals and aspects of the organizational climate important to change. Findings show that among those staff members responding to the Survey. the belief in rehabilitation scale mean score was associated with higher levels of organizational commitment, and interdepartmental coordination. However, an hierarchical linear modeling (HIM) analysis that used an index score derived from the standard deviation for staff consensus regarding these same beliefs about rehabilitation produced a different pattern of results, showing that high levels of consensus were associated with job frustration, cynicism towards the ability of the institution to change, and lower levels of organizational commitment. The authors conclude that, although the sample may not express the beliefs of corrections officers or prison-based treatment staff at large, within the sample, consensus appeared to play a unique role in evaluating the effect of divergent goals on organizational climate as it relates to change, and warrants consideration when considering the effects of organizational climate.

Mitchell SG; Kelly SM; Brown BS; Reisinger HS; Peterson JA; Ruhf A et al. Incarceration and opioid withdrawal: The experiences of methadone patients and out-of-treatment heroin users. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 41(2): 145-152, 2009. (43 refs.)

Both heroin-addicted individuals and methadone maintenance patients are likely to face untreated opioid withdrawal while incarcerated. Limited research exists concerning the withdrawal experiences of addicted inmates and their impact on individuals' attitudes and plans concerning drug abuse treatment. In the present study, 53 opioid dependent adults (32 in methadone treatment and 2 1 out of treatment) were interviewed in an ethnographic investigation of withdrawal experiences during incarceration. When treatment for opioid withdrawal was unavailable, detoxification experiences were usually described as negative and were often associated with a variety of unhealthy behaviors designed to relieve withdrawal symptoms. Negative methadone withdrawal experiences also negatively influenced participants' receptivity to seeking methadone treatment upon release. A minority of participants took a positive view of their withdrawal experience and saw it its an opportunity to detox from heroin or discontinue methadone. Findings support the importance of providing appropriate opioid detoxification and/or maintenance therapy to opioid-dependent inmates.

Morris DA. Methamphetamine: Types, forms, effects, and the federal sentencing guidelines. The Champion 32(January): 20-25, 2009. (76 refs.)

This article provides information on sentencing statistics, ethics, and the types, "forms," and effects of methamphetamine. It highlights the significant distinctions between the Sentencing Guideline's three "sentencing" or "guideline types" of methamphetamine and the nicknames associated with the "forms" of methamphetamine. There is a discussion of how the confusion and generalizations between the "types" and "forms" can easily mislead people and lead to higher sentences than the facts support. n1 In order to facilitate the goals of this article, examples are used to illustrate the points raised.

Oddie S; Davies J. A multi-method evaluation of a substance misuse program in a medium secure forensic mental health unit. Journal of Addictions Nursing 20(3): 132-141, 2009. (62 refs.)

Evidence suggests a complex relationship between substance misuse, mental health, and violence in forensic populations, however, the majority of existing research and interventions focus on these factors individually. This paper reports an evaluation of the first module of an integrated poly-substance misuse group delivered within a medium secure mental health hospital, which was designed to address these factors collectively. Qualitative and quantitative approaches were used to assess participant's subjective views of the program and to gather pre and post quantitative measurement of change. The concordance between self report and observer reports was explored. Recommendations for the development of the treatment and for further evaluation and research are discussed.

Oser CB; Knudsen HK; Staton-Tindall M; Taxman F; Leukefeld C. Organizational-level correlates of the provision of detoxification services and medication-based treatments for substance abuse in correctional institutions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 103(Supplement 1): S73-S81, 2009. (75 refs.)

In recent years, there has been an increased examination of organizational-level innovation adoption in substance abuse treatment organizations. However, the majority of these studies have focused on community-based treatment centers. One understudied area of the substance abuse treatment system is correctional institutions. This Study uses the Criminal justice Drug Abuse Treatment Studies (CJ-DATS) cooperative's National Criminal justice Treatment Practices (NCJTP) Survey to examine the adoption of detoxification services and pharmacotherapies for the treatment of substance abuse across a nationally representative sample of correctional institutions (n = 198). There were significant differences between jails and prisons in the percentage of organizations offering detoxification services and medications. Specifically, detoxification services were offered by 5% of prisons and 34% of jails: and, medications were offered by 6% of prisons and 32% of jails. Binary logistic regression models were used to examine the associations between these services and organizational characteristics, including context, resources, previously introduced practices, culture, and systems integration. Variables measuring organizational context and previously introduced practices were significant correlates of the provision of both detoxification services and medications. Multivariate results indicated that the differences between jails and prisons remained significant after controlling for other organizational factors. Although the adoption of detoxification services and pharmacotherapies may be a controversial topic for correctional institutions, these services have the potential to improve offender well-being and reduce public health risks associated with substance abuse.

Paik L. Maybe he's depressed: Mental illness as a mitigating factor for drug offender accountability. Law and Social Inquiry 34(3): 569-602, 2009. (69 refs.)

Given the often perplexing relationship between mental illness and substance abuse among offenders, this article looks at how a juvenile drug court staff's presumptions of a youth's mental illness affect its decision-making process. Based on thirteen months of ethnographic fieldwork at a Southern California juvenile drug court, this article uses Manzo and Travers's "law in action" approach to analyze how the staff readjusts its application of normal remedies (a concept developed by Robert Emerson) designed to respond to a youth's noncompliance when it suspects mental illness may be influencing the youth's actions. In doing so, it highlights how court staff's considerations of youth mental disorders arise out of its everyday work practices. Furthermore, the article discusses how staff negotiations around a youth's mental illness create tensions for the juvenile drug court's accountability-based model of therapeutic jurisprudence, because assessments of mental illness tend to mitigate responsibility for a youth's behavior.

Painter K. Multisystemic therapy as community-based treatment for youth with severe emotional disturbance. Research on Social Work Practice 19(3): 314-324, 2009. (63 refs.)

Objective: This study compares multisystemic therapy (MST) to family skills training combined with case management in community mental health for emotionally disturbed youth. Method: A pre-post quasiexperimental design was used. Results: Youth who received MST experienced more improved mental health symptoms, less juvenile justice involvement, and improvement across the linear combination of school functioning, family functioning, mental health symptoms, substance abuse, risk of self-harm, and disruptive or aggressive behavior than did youth who received usual services. Both groups experienced significant improvement in youth functioning. Conclusions: The use of MST in community mental health could prevent families from relinquishing custody of their children to receive effective treatment for them and avert juvenile justice involvement.

Perry A; Darwin Z; Godfrey C; McDougall C; Lunn J; Glanville J et al. The effectiveness of interventions for drug-using offenders in the courts, secure establishments and the community: A systematic review. Substance Use & Misuse 44(3): 374-400, 2009. (65 refs.)

Interventions for drug-using offenders are employed internationally to reduce subsequent drug use and criminal behavior. This paper provides information from a systematic review of 24 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) conducted between 1980 and 2004. Thirteen of the 24 trials were included in a series of meta-analyses, and tentative conclusions are drawn on the basis of the evidence. Pretrial release with drugs testing and intensive supervision were shown to have limited success when compared to routine parole and probation, with effect sizes favoring routine parole and probation. Therapeutic community interventions showed promising results when compared to dispensation of treatment to individuals as usual, reducing risk of future offending behavior. A few studies evaluated the effectiveness of assertive case management and other community-based programs, but due to the paucity of information few inferences could be drawn from these studies. Little is known about the cost and cost effectiveness of such interventions, and the development of established protocols is required.

Richmond R; Butler T; Wilhelm K; Wodak A; Cunningham M; Anderson I. Tobacco in prisons: A focus group study. Tobacco Control 18(3): 176-182, 2009. (46 refs.)

Objective: To examine the role of tobacco use in prison and possible influences of the prison environment on smoking among inmates in the context of developing inmate smoking cessation programmes. Method: Qualitative study based on seven focus groups with prisoners and ex-prisoners. Settings: A maximum security prison in rural New South Wales (NSW), Australia, and a community justice restorative centre and accommodation service for ex-prisoners in Sydney, NSW, Australia. Participants: 40 participants (28 men and 12 women) comprising nine prisoners (including four Indigenous inmates) and 31 ex-prisoners. Results: Prisoners reported that tobacco serves as a de facto currency in correctional settings and can be exchanged for goods, used to pay debts and for gambling. Smoking helps manage the stressful situations such as transfers, court appearances and prison visits. Inmate smoking cessation programmes need to address the enmeshment of tobacco in prison life, improve availability of pharmacotherapies (for example, nicotine patches, bupropion) and the quitline (a free telephone helpline providing information on stopping smoking), provide nonsmoking cells and areas within prisons, encourage physical activity for inmates and maintain monitoring of smoking cessation status after release. Conclusions: Tobacco is integrally bound up in the prison "culture". Our findings are relevant to inform prison health authorities concerned with improving the health of prisoners, and for support organisations attempting to facilitate smoking cessation both in prison and after release. Smoking cessation programmes in prisons should be tailored to the unique stresses of the prison environment. Programmes need to acknowledge the difficulties of quitting smoking in prison arising from the stresses posed by this setting.

Schwartz RR; Jaffe JH; O'Grady KE; Kinlock TW; Gordon MS; Kelly SM et al. Interim methadone treatment: Impact on arrests. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 103(3): 148-154, 2009. (41 refs.)

Aims: This study examines the frequency and severity of arrest charges among heroin addicts randomly assigned to either interim methadone (IM) maintenance or to remain on a waiting list for methadone treatment. It was hypothesized that IM participants would have a: (I) lower number of arrests at 6 and 12 months and (2) lower mean Crime severity scores at 6 and 12 months post-baseline. Methods: Available official arrest data were obtained for all 319 study participants for a period of 2 years before and after Study enrollment. Crime severity ratings of charges were made using an established measure of crime severity. Findings: Participants randomly assigned to IM as compared to those on a waiting list had a significant reduction in number of arrests at 6 but not at 12 months from study enrollment. There were no significant differences in whether participants were arrested for a more severe crime but frequency of severe crime was relatively low in both groups. Additional post hoc analyses based on whether participants were in methadone treatment at 4 and 10 months after original random assignment to treatment condition revealed that those participants not in treatment at these follow-up assessment points were significantly More likely to be arrested and to have a higher mean crime severity rating at 12 and 24 months post-baseline assessment. Conclusions: IM as compared to the waiting list condition, had a significant reduction in number Of Officially recorded arrests from baseline to 6 months post-baseline. Those who were enrolled in methadone treatment at the 4- and 10-month follow-up assessment, regardless of initial assignment, had fewer arrests at 12 and 24 months post-baseline.

Sheard L; Wright NMJ; El-Sayeh HG; Adams CE; Li R; Tompkins CNE. The Leeds Evaluation of Efficacy of Detoxification Study (LEEDS) prisons project: a randomised controlled trial comparing dihydrocodeine and buprenorphine for opiate detoxification. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention and Policy 4: e-article 1, 2009. (32 refs.)

Background: Many opiate users entering British prisons require prescribed medication to help them achieve abstinence. This commonly takes the form of a detoxification regime. Previously, a range of detoxification agents have been prescribed without a clear evidence base to recommend a drug of choice. There are few trials and very few in the prison setting. This study compares dihydrocodeine with buprenorphine. Methods: Open label, pragmatic, randomised controlled trial in a large remand prison in the North of England. Ninety adult male prisoners requesting an opiate detoxification were randomised to receive either daily sublingual buprenorphine or daily oral dihydrocodeine, given in the context of routine care. All participants gave written, informed consent. Reducing regimens were within a standard regimen of not more than 20 days and were at the discretion of the prescribing doctor. Primary outcome was abstinence from illicit opiates as indicated by a urine test at five days post detoxification. Secondary outcomes were collected during the detoxification period and then at one, three and six months post detoxification. Analysis was undertaken using relative risk tests for categorical data and unpaired t-tests for continuous data. Results: 64% of those approached took part in the study. 63 men (70%) gave a urine sample at five days post detoxification. At the completion of detoxification, by intention to treat analysis, a higher proportion of people allocated to buprenorphine provided a urine sample negative for opiates (abstinent) compared with those who received dihydrocodeine (57% vs 35%, RR 1.61 CI 1.02-2.56). At the 1, 3 and 6 month follow-up points, there were no significant differences for urine samples negative for opiates between the two groups. Follow up rates were low for those participants who had subsequently been released into the community. Conclusion: These findings would suggest that dihydrocodeine should not be routinely used for detoxification from opiates in the prison setting. The high relapse rate amongst those achieving abstinence would suggest the need for an increased emphasis upon opiate maintenance programmes in the prison setting.

Skeem J; Louden JE; Manchak S; Vidal S; Haddad E. Social networks and social control of probationers with co-occurring mental and substance abuse problems. Law and Human Behavior 33(2): 122-135, 2009. (66 refs.)

Probationers with co-occurring mental and substance abuse problems (PCPs) are both subject to considerable social control, and at high risk of probation failure. In this study, we screened 601 probationers for symptoms, interviewed 82 identified PCPs about their relationships, and then followed these PCPs for eight months to record treatment nonadherence and other probation violations. First, PCPs' social networks were small, heavily comprised of professionals and opposing forces who engaged in risky behavior, and saturated with pressure to adhere to treatment. Second, the size and composition of PCPs' social networks were more relevant to rule compliance than social support and undermining. Third, the quality of PCPs' relationships was key: satisfying relationships with clinicians and, to a lesser extent, officers and the core network related to low perceived coercion, high treatment adherence, and low risk of future violations. In particular, having a likable clinician who engaged in participatory decision-making reduced the risk of violations. Implications for contextually sensitive risk reduction efforts are discussed.

Sly KA; Sharples J; Lewin TJ; Bench CJ. Court outcomes for clients referred to a community mental health court liaison service. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 32(2): 92-100, 2009. (47 refs.)

Court liaison and diversion services come in a variety of forms, but the similarities and differences between these services are not well characterized. Findings from a six-year audit of the Newcastle (Australia) Mental Health Court Liaison (MHCL) service are reported, including client characteristics, offence and service contact profiles, Court Outcomes, and interrelationships among these variables. During the audit period, there were 2383 service episodes by 1858 clients (1478 males, 380 females), Drug and alcohol disorders (40.9%) and psychotic disorders (17.0%) were the most prevalent mental health problems, while assault (23.1%), theft (23.1%), offences against justice procedures (15.4%). driving offences (13.4%) and malicious damage to property (8.3%) were the most frequently recorded charges. Among service episodes with a finalized court Outcome, 70.0% involved a punishment (bond: 49.5%: jail term: 29.7%). Females were less likely to be punished, but more likely to have their case dismissed under sections of the relevant Act that required further assessment and monitoring. Being married, or having an adjustment or drug and alcohol disorder, were also associated with an increased likelihood Of punishment, while clients with a psychotic or bipolar disorder were less likely to be punished, Among clients who were Punished, those referred from inpatient mental health services were more likely to receive a non-jail punishment, while unemployed clients were more likely to be jailed. A Substantial proportion of clients had Court outcomes that required ail ongoing involvement with local mental health services. By being part of community mental health services, our MHCL service is able to work efficiently and effectively with the criminal justice system, while facilitating ready access to existing mental health services and continuation of care.

�Arfken CL; Kubiak SP. Substance abuse treatment and services by criminal justice and other funding sources. Addictive Behaviors 34(6-7): 613-615, 2009. (9 refs.)

Studies have found funding source, whether public or private, is associated with treatment and services offered in community-based agencies. However, the association of criminal justice funding with community-based treatment and services is unknown. Using a mixed method case study approach with 34 agencies within one state we assessed administrators' perspectives of the most important funding source, treatment and services offered. We found that agencies rely on multiple funding sources and the source rated most important was associated with treatment and services offered in the agency. Those agencies citing a criminal justice entity as the most important funder were more likely to offer specific ancillary services and adopt motivational interviewing than those citing private funds. Although client characteristics or training opportunities may determine these services and practices, the agency's most important funding source may have implications for services offered.

Staton-Tindall M; Havens JR; Oser CB; Prendergast M; Leukefeld C. Gender-specific factors associated with community substance abuse treatment utilization among incarcerated substance users. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 53(4): 401-419, 2009. (41 refs.)

This article describes the independent correlates of preincarceration community substance abuse treatment utilization for male and female offenders currently participating in prison-based treatment. As part of the National Institute on Drug Abuse-funded Criminal Justice Drug Abuse Treatment Studies cooperative agreement, this protocol was implemented by four collaborating research centers. Males with a history of treatment utilization were more likely to be older, to have used crack, and to have had a greater number of arrests, and they were less likely to be arrested for a violent charge. Females with previous treatment were more likely to have been hospitalized for a health condition and were significantly more likely to have lived with someone else before prison rather than in their own home. These findings suggest that factors associated with preincarceration treatment utilization differ by gender, which may have important implications for correctional-based treatment assessment, reentry planning, and transitional case management.

Taxman FS; Henderson CE; Belenko S. Organizational context, systems change, and adopting treatment delivery systems in the criminal justice system. (editorial). Drug and Alcohol Dependence 103(Supplement 1): S1-S6, 2009. (46 refs.)

The correctional system does not include service provision as a primary goal, even though individuals in prison, jail, and on probation/parole have large unmet Substance abuse treatment needs. In response to mandates in the U.S. Constitution for basic health care, services are provided for incarcerated offenders, but generally do not include substance abuse treatment. The system does little to extend any type of health care service to individuals in community settings. This leaves the majority of offenders (6 million under community Supervision in the U.S.) basically unattended, even with substance abuse disorders that are four times greater than the general public. The challenge of adapting the correctional system to be part of all integrated service provision system - working in conjunction with the public and private community-based service delivery sector- has intrigued researchers and policy makers over the last two decades. A series of articles using data from the National Criminal Justice Treatment Practices Survey have examined factors that influence the adoption of a myriad of substance abuse treatment services for offender Populations in various settings. These articles explore the factors that affect adoption and implementation, and provide guidance on issues relevant to Organizational change and a dual mission Of correctional agencies to advance public safety and public health. This special issue of Drug and Alcohol Dependence is devoted to understanding organizational constructs and factors to improve health outcomes for offenders.

Taxman FS; Kitsantas P. Availability and capacity of substance abuse programs in correctional settings: A classification and regression tree analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 103(Supplement 1): S43-S53, 2009. (57 refs.)

Objective to be addressed: The purpose of this study was to investigate the structural and organizational factors that contribute to the availability and increased capacity for substance abuse treatment programs in correctional settings. We used classification and regression tree statistical procedures to identify how multi-level data can explain the variability in availability and capacity Of substance abuse treatment programs in jails and probation/parole offices. Methods: The data for this study combined the National Criminal Justice Treatment Practices (NCJTP) Survey and the 2000 Census. The NCJTP Survey was a nationally representative sample of correctional administrators for jails and probation/parole agencies. The sample size included 295 substance abuse treatment programs that were classified according to the intensity of their services: high, medium, and low. The independent variables included jurisdictional-level Structural variables, attributes of the correctional administrators, and program and service delivery characteristics of the correctional agency. Results: The two most important variables in predicting the availability of all three types of services were stronger working relationships with other organizations and the adoption of a standardized Substance abuse screening tool by correctional agencies. For high and medium intensive programs, the capacity increased when an organizational learning strategy was used by administrators and the organization used a substance abuse screening tool. Implications on advancing treatment practices in correctional settings are discussed, including further work to test theories on how to better understand access to intensive treatment services. This study presents the first phase of understanding capacity-related issues regarding treatment programs offered in correctional settings.

Tikkanen R; Holi M; Lindberg N; Tiihonen J; Virkkunen M. Recidivistic offending and mortality in alcoholic violent offenders: A prospective follow-up study. Psychiatry Research 168(1): 18-25, 2009. (33 refs.)

Predictive data supporting prevention of violent criminality are scarce. We examined fisk factors for recidivism and mortality among non-psychotic alcoholic violent offenders, the majority having antisocial or borderline personality disorders, or both., which is a group that commits the majority of violent offences in Finland. Criminal records and mortality data on 242 male alcoholic violent offenders were analysed after a 7- to 15-year follow-up, and compared between themselves and with those of 1210 age-, sex- and municipality-matched controls. Recidivism and mortality rates were high. The risk of recidivistic violence was increased by antisocial or borderline personality disorder, or both, childhood maltreatment, and a combination of these. A combination of borderline personality disorder and childhood maltreatment was particularly noxious, suggesting an additive risk increase for a poor outcome. Accurate diagnosis and careful childhood interview may help to predict recidivism and premature death.

Timko C; Moos BS; Moos RH. Gender differences in 16-year trends in assault- and police-related problems due to drinking. Addictive Behaviors 34(9): 744-750, 2009. (52 refs.)

This study examined the frequency and predictors of physical assault and having trouble with the police due to drinking over 16 years among women and men who, at baseline, were untreated for their alcohol use disorder. Predictors examined were the personal characteristics of impulsivity, self-efficacy, and problem-solving and emotional-discharge coping, as well as outpatient treatment and Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) participation. Women and men were similar on rates of perpetrating assault due to drinking, but men were more likely to have had trouble with the police due to drinking. Respondents who, at baseline. were more impulsive and relied more on emotional discharge coping, and less on problem-solving coping, assaulted others more frequently during the first year of follow-up. Similarly, less problem-solving coping at baseline was related to having had trouble with the police more often at one and 16 years due to drinking. The association between impulsivity and more frequent assault was stronger for women, whereas associations of self-efficacy and problem-solving coping with less frequent assault and police trouble were stronger for men. Participation in AA was also associated with a lower likelihood of having trouble with the police at one year, especially for men. Interventions aimed at decreasing impulsivity and emotional discharge coping, and bolstering self-efficacy and problem-solving coping, during substance abuse treatment, and encouragement to become involved in AA, may be helpful in reducing assaultive and other illegal behaviors.

Turnbull PJ. The great cannabis classification debacle: What are the likely consequences for policing cannabis possession offences in England and Wales? Drug and Alcohol Review 28(2): 202-209, 2009. (20 refs.)

The British government downgraded cannabis from a Class B to a Class C drug in 2004; but in 2008 it reversed this decision, and cannabis is due to be reclassified back to Class B in January 2009. In this Harm Reduction Digest, PaulTurnbull assesses the impact of classification to Class B focusing on policing and the legitimacy of drug law. The government cited the availability of stronger strains of cannabis and a large rise in the number of UK-based 'cannabis farms' as the reasons for this decision. This is set against a backdrop of a trend of declining levels of use in the UK and a number of jurisdictions throughout the world adopting civil rather than criminal procedures to deal with cannabis possession offences. It concludes that tougher penalties for cannabis possession will have little deterrent effect on use and that the focus of law enforcement is likely to continue to fall disproportionately on young men from black and minority ethnic groups. Turnbull concludes that a better approach would be to use targeted public health approaches to reduce cannabis use and harm.

Warner TD; Kramer JH. Closing the revolving door? Substance abuse treatment as an alternative to traditional sentencing for drug-dependent offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior 36(1): 89-109, 2009. (37 refs.)

The criminal justice system is often viewed as a revolving door for drug-dependent offenders due to its failure to recognize the association between addiction and offending, and repeated incarceration of drug-dependent offenders has contributed to prison overcrowding. The authors evaluated the effectiveness of Pennsylvania's drug and alcohol treatment-based intermediate punishment, Restrictive Intermediate Punishments (RIP/D&A), at reducing the risk of rearrest. Rearrest was compared at 12, 24, and 36 months postrelease. Offenders who successfully completed treatment had a lower risk of rearrest than traditionally sentenced offenders in general and county jail and probation offenders specifically. However, offenders sentenced to RIP/D&A who did not successfully complete treatment were more at risk for rearrest than traditionally sentenced offenders in general. Also, offenders sentenced to state incarceration had a lower risk of rearrest than RIP/D&A participants, regardless of program completion.

Young DW; Farrell JL; Henderson CE; Taxman FS. Filling service gaps: Providing intensive treatment services for offenders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 103(Supplement 1): S33-S42, 2009. (61 refs.)

Consistent with the few studies that have previously examined treatment prevalence and access in the adult and juvenile justice systems, the recent National Criminal Justice Treatment Practices (NCJTP) survey indicated that there is a particular need to expand intensive treatment modalities for offenders in both institutional and community corrections settings. Applying multilevel modeling techniques to NCJTP Survey data, this study explores conditions and factors that may underlie the wide variation among states in the provision of intensive treatment for offenders. Results indicate that states' overall rates of substance abuse and dependence, funding resources, and the state governor's political party affiliation were significantly associated with intensive treatment provision. Numerous factors that have been implicated in recent Studies of evidence-based practice adoption, including state agency executives' views regarding rehabilitation, agency Culture and climate, and other state-level measures (e.g., household income, crime rates, expenditures on treatment for the general population) were not associated with treatment provision. Future research should examine further variations in offenders' service needs, the role of legislators' political affiliations, and how other factors may interact with administrator characteristics in the adoption and expansion of intensive treatment services for offenders.

Zagar RJ; Busch KG; Hughes JR; Arbit J. Comparing early and late twentieth-century Boston and Chicago male juvenie offenders: What changed? Psychological Reports 104(1, Special Issue): 185-198, 2009. (60 refs.)

To investigate changes in characteristics of delinquents over time, randomly selected contemporary delinquents (Zagar, et al., 1980-1988; n=2,031) were compared with 3 historical Chicago and Boston samples (Healy & Bonner, 1909-1915, n=2,000; Healy & Bonner, 1917-1923, n=2,000; Glueck & Glueck, 1917-1922, n = 1,000). All underwent physical, psychiatric, psychological, school, and social examinations. Contemporary delinquents had more assault, burglary, homicide, alcohol and substance abuse, gang membership, head injury, overdose, and single parents. Historical delinquent samples had more thieves and families with both biological parents. Historical delinquent mean IQ was 5 points below standardization average; modern delinquents were 22 points lower. Contemporary offenders were a greater portion of the county public school-aged population. Current more sensitive and specific examinations account for increases in observed overdoses and head injuries in the 1980s sample. Other demographic differences between contemporary and 3 historical delinquent samples were robust. Findings are discussed with respect to a need for early actuarial assessment and empirical treatment of the costliest delinquents: the dropouts, alcoholics, addicts, career delinquents-criminals, and homicide-prone youth.

Zanis DA; Coviello DM; Lloyd JJ; Nazar BL. Predictors of drug treatment completion among parole violators. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 41(2): 173-180, 2009. (38 refs.)

This study examined the predictors of treatment completion among 380 state parole violators consecutively admitted to a comprehensive 12-month drug treatment program in lien of reincarceration. Offenders were placed on intensive parole supervision throughout the 12-month treatment protocol and received three months of residential substance abuse treatment followed by nine months of outpatient counseling. Over-all 123 (32.4%) of the offenders completed the 12-month treatment protocol. The primary reason for noncompletion was a positive drug screen. Bivariate analyses were performed to determine independent predictors of program completion. Four variables (age, past 30-day heroin use, total months incarcerated, and significant problems with mother) from the baseline Addiction Severity Index were found to be correlated with treatment completion (p < .10). These factors and other demographics (race, marital status, education) and variables found predictive of program completion in previous studies were entered into a multiple logistic regression model. Overall the final model found that only two factors-older age (p < .03) and no heroin use in the past 30 days (p < .02) significantly predicted treatment completion. These findings suggest that among parolees with moderate to extensive criminal justice histories younger individuals and those with recent heroin use respond less favorably to comprehensive Substance abuse treatment services and intensive parole supervision.