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CORK Bibliography: Criminal Justice System

65 citations. October 2006 to present

Prepared: September 2007

Alleyne V. Locked up means locked out: Women, addiction and incarceration. Women & Therapy 29(3-4): 181-194, 2006. (24 refs.)

In one of the quietest but most significant social phenomena of our time, national statistics indicate that the number of incarcerated women has quadrupled over the last 20 years. The status of women of color in America, already precarious, is further eroded under this new world order, as 54% of the incarcerated female population is African American or Latina. Harsh drug laws, mandatory sentencing, and policing strategies which focus on smaller crimes have succeeded in netting large numbers of mothers, grandmothers, single breadwinners and other women whose primary offenses prior to arrest were being poor and often having a substance abuse problem. Once incarcerated, new difficulties are visited upon these women, including family dissolution, precipitous declines in mental health, and often loss of child custody as legal cases wend their way slowly through the system. The commonly reported statistic that 80% of all crimes committed have drug involvement holds true for women as well. Most women in prison are untreated substance abusers with high recidivism rates that correlate with greater addiction severity. Typically., each return to incarceration signifies a deeper level of addiction, with associated declines in health, employment opportunity, and social functioning. The quantum increase in incarceration for women is linked directly to drug and alcohol addiction, yet little has been done to address the issue. Many prison systems are ill equipped to handle the influx of women, from a variety of perspectives. County jails, historically designed to he shorter term holding areas for those with minor offenses or awaiting a state prison bed, are now handling many more female prisoners for much longer periods of time. Social, health, and substance abuse services for these women are grossly inadequate, if available at all. This article will address the double bind of addiction and incarceration that women face today in unprecedented numbers. It will discuss, via case study and review, the precipitous erosion of mental health and family functioning that typically occurs when substance abusing women are incarcerated instead of treated. The paper will discuss the national silence which has surrounded this very public epidemic, particularly regarding the country's discomfort and resulting inability to confront the debilitating effects of addiction and incarceration oil women and families. Finally, this paper will discuss effective strategies for change, arguing that a first step must include an appreciation for the unique perspective and experiences that addicted women have and bring to a correctional environment.

[anonymous]. Note: Cooking up solutions to a cooked up menace: Responses to methamphetamine in a federal system. Harvard Law Review 119: 2508-2529, 2006. (135 legal refs.)

Summary: Per Justice Brandeis, "It is one of the happy incidents of the federal system that a single courageous State may, if its citizens choose, serve as a laboratory; and try novel social and economic experiments without risk to the rest of the country." Based on the experience with fighting the methamphetamine problem, which shows advantages to both federal control and state experimentation, the ideal response to the problem would assign leadership neither exclusively to the federal government nor exclusively to the states. ... While the details of legislation passed within the past several years have varied widely, enacted provisions generally fall within five categories: regulation of precursor chemicals, punishment of users and manufacturers, facilitation of methamphetamine laboratory cleanup, protection of victimized children, and treatment for users. ... Although the federal government may have taken a conservative and incremental position on domestic precursor chemical regulation, it has been in the vanguard on aggressively sentencing those trafficking in methamphetamine. ... The conclusion that methamphetamine policy works best with simultaneous federal and state regulation deviates from traditional views on federalism in the drug law context. ... But as such a reversal would have ended states' beneficial experimentation with precursor controls, the CMEA explicitly reaffirmed the nonpreemption provision. ... Therefore, on issues related to the methamphetamine problem, the courts should likewise have the power to resolve statutory ambiguity in favor of maintaining a permissive baseline of federal regulation that leaves room for states' experimentation. To determine the ideal responses to methamphetamine, Part I of this Note opens by tracing the nature and growth of the methamphetamine problem. Part II then examines states' recent measures to arrest its use and production. The focus turns to the federal reaction in Part III. With the initiatives of each level of government established, Part IV compares their effectiveness and posits that experience suggests a model in which states supplement a baseline of federal laws. Finally, Part V considers whether this ideal federal-state balance is achievable in practice.

Asbridge M. Drugs and driving: When science and policy don't mix. (editorial). Canadian Journal of Public Health 97(4): 283-285, 2006. (40 refs.)

This commentary briefly looks at the Canadian federal government's proposed legislation to strengthen the enforcement of drug-impaired driving, placing special emphasis on cannabis. After outlining the legislation, three issues are examined. Of primary concern is at what level cannabis use impairs driving ability leading to an increased risk of motor vehicle collision. Current epidemiological evidence is reviewed. Equally important is the government's emphasis on the training and implementation of Drug Recognition Experts (DREs), specially trained police officers whose role is to detect drivers under the influence of drugs. Research on the effectiveness of DREs is discussed, along with a dialogue regarding the potential shortcomings of the DRE program. Finally, a brief surveillance of international policy literature on drugs and driving is offered, along with some sober thoughts on the potential difficulties that may emerge in the enforcement of the proposed legislation.

Baletka DM; Shearer RA. Assessing program needs of female offenders who abuse substances. IN: Sims, B. ed. Substance Abuse Treatment with Correctional Clients: Practical Implications for Institutional and Community Settings. Binghamton NY: Haworth Press, 2005. pp. 227-242. (52 refs.)

The number of female inmates has grown 336 percent since 1980. However, treatment in the criminal justice system is geared toward males. The authors review the primary forms of treatment -- vocational training, parenting skills, family therapy, mental health, high-risk behaviors, confrontation techniques, anger management, individual therapy, empowerment training, and group therapy, and their differential effectiveness with men and women. The authors describe the development of gender-specific programs, and then describes an assessment tool for use with women in correctional settings, the Female Offender Critical Intervention Inventory.

Beynon CM; Bellis MA; McVeigh J. Trends in drop out, drug free discharge and rates of re-presentation: A retrospective cohort study of drug treatment clients in the North West of England. BMC Public Health 6(article 205), 2006. (37 refs.)

Background: Governments aim to increase treatment participation by problematic drug users. In the UK this has been achieved by fiscal investment, an expanded workforce, reduced waiting times and coercive measures (usually criminal justice) led). No assessment of these measures on treatment outcomes has been made. Using established monitoring systems we assessed trends in 'dropped out' and 'discharged drug free' (DDF), since the launch of the national drug strategy, and rates of treatment re-presentation for these cohorts. Methods: A longitudinal dataset of drug users (1997 to 2004/05, n = 26,415) was used to identify people who dropped out of, and were discharged drug free from, services for years 1998 to 2001/02, and representations of these people in years to 2004/05. Trends in drop out and discharged drug free, baseline comparisons of those discharged drug free and those who dropped out and outcome comparisons for those referred from the criminal justice system versus other routes of referral were examined using chi square. Logistic regression analyses identified variables predicting drop out versus discharged drug free' and subsequent representation versus no re-presentation. Results: The proportion of individuals dropping out has increased from 7.2% in 1998 to 9.6% in 2001/02 (P < 0.001). The proportion discharged drug free has fallen from 5.8% to 3.5% (P < 0.001). Drop out was more likely in later years, by those of younger age and by criminal justice referrals. The proportion re-presenting to treatment in the following year increased from 27.8% in 1998 to 44.5% in 2001/02 (P < 0.001) for those discharged drug free', and from 22.9% to 48.6% (P < 0.001) for those who dropped out. Older age and prior treatment experience predicted re-presentation. Outcome ( drop out or discharged drug free') did not predict re-presentation. Conclusion: Increasing numbers in treatment is associated with an increased proportion dropping out and an ever-smaller proportion discharged drug free. Rates of drop out are significantly higher for those coerced into treatment via the criminal justice system. Rates of re-presentation are similar for those dropping out and those discharged drug free'. Encouragingly, those who need to re-engage with treatment, particularly those who drop out, are doing so more quickly. The impact of coercion on treatment outcomes and the appropriateness of aftercare provision require further consideration.

Blakeslee N. Tulia: Race, Cocaine, and Corruption in a Small Texas Town. New York: Public Affairs, 2005

This non-fiction book tells the story of a series of bogus drug arrests in the small Texas town of Tulia, sparked by a racist narcotics officer Tom Coleman. Coleman, an undercover white narcotics officer, claimed to have made more than 100 purchases of powdered cocaine during an 18-month period in 1998-99 from about 40 different residents of Tulia, a small and relatively poor town in the north Texas panhandle. Coleman worked for a regional anti-drug task force based in Amarillo, which had hired him largely because of his late father's stellar law-enforcement record. His work was unsupervised by the county sheriff and district attorney. Complementing Coleman was a local justice system that provided indigent defendents with "completely ineffective" lawyers offering resulting in only pro forma representation. Several of the Tulia defendants were quickly convicted and most resulted in long prison sentences-up to 434 years. It was through the work of a local reporter, and through pro bono appelate attornies that led to the release of most defendents and a civil settlement.

Calhoun G; Stefurak T; Johnson CD. The effectiveness of substance abuse counseling for the adolescent female. IN: Sims, B. ed. Substance Abuse Treatment with Correctional Clients: Practical Implications for Institutional and Community Settings. Binghamton NY: Haworth Press, 2005. pp. 211-225. (40 refs.)

Adolescent female offenders have largely been ignored throughout the juvenile justice field. Attention to this group is critical as their numbers have grown at a rate four times that of male offenders. There are significant differences between male and female offenders. Female offenders is the higher rate of sexual abuse among females, as well as higher rates of emotional deprivation, and higher rates of depression.The authors note that the focus has tended to be on the behaviors exhibied by juveniles, seen by the author as a masculive conceptualization, rather than attending as well upon the feelings which fuel these behaviors. This chapter describes a relational group therapy model, a therapeutic approach that addresses underlying relationship issues and emotional concerns. An appendix is provided that provides an outline for a sixteen session series of group therapy.

Carroll K; Sinha R; Easton C. Engaging young probation-referred cannabis-abusing individuals in treatment. IN: Roffman RA; Stephens RS, eds. Cannabis Dependence: Its Nature, Consequences and Treatment. London: Cambridge University Press, 2006. pp. 297-314

This chapter, one of several dealing with adolescent cannabis problems, addresses efforts to involve adolescents who are probation-referred into treatment. It begins by consideration of the rationale for targeting young adult marijuana users, and similarly, the rationale for focusing upon those referred by the legal system. The chapter then deals with the question of why evaluation a motivational enhancement approach with this latter population. and why test a contingency management approach. The remainder of the chapter outlines intervention research which uses these techniques, the results, and what is entailed to train therapists to provide this treatment.

Caulkins JP; Chandler S. Long-run trends in incarceration of drug offenders in the United States. Crime & Delinquency 52(4): 619-641, 2006. (87 refs.)

Estimates are developed for the number of people incarcerated in the United States for drug law violations between 1972 and 2002, broken down by type of institution (federal prison, state prison, or jail) and, to the extent possible, by nature of drug offense (possession or use, trafficking, or other). These time series are compared to trends in drug use indicators, revealing at best weak correlations, and the absolute levels are compared to different market indicators to draw various inferences. For example, even though about 480,000 people are incarcerated for drug law violations, on average retail sellers spend less than 2 hours behind bars per sale. Still, full-time sellers might expect to spend 3 months incarcerated per year of selling, suggesting that there are roughly four active drug sellers for every one who is incarcerated.

Cooper CS. Drug courts. Just the beginning: Getting other areas of public policy in sync. Substance Use & Misuse 42(2-3): 243-256, 2007. (11 refs.)

Although an offender can complete a drug court program in the United States, have his/her charges dismissed or reduced (or some other amelioration of the criminal justice system penalty that would otherwise have been applied), become drug free, obtain a job, regain custody of his/her children, become a tax-paying, law-abiding citizen, etc., he/she will still be deprived of basic rights afforded to other U.S. citizens because other sectors of public policy still approach addiction with a punitive orientation. Thus, despite the fact that an offender may have made a substantial beginning in recovery, other parts of the system make no accommodation for his/her recovery efforts in, for example, their denial of (a) welfare benefits to persons charged/convicted of drug offenses; (b) educational loans or other benefits to persons charged/convicted of drug offenses; (c) public housing to persons charged/convicted of drug offenses; land (d) voting rights to persons with felony convictions. In addition, deportation proceedings can be instituted - even for persons with a legal immigration status-based upon a charge or conviction for a drug offense. Without changes in other key areas of public policy, the goals and benefits designed to be achieved by the criminal justice system through drug I court programs can be thwarted in both the short and long term by the failure of a shift I in thinking in other key public sector areas that are critical to meaningfully reintegrating substance-addicted offenders into the mainstream of the community. Hopefully, policy-makers will begin to address this critical need.

Drake RE; Morrissey JP; Mueser KT. The challenge of treating forensic dual diagnosis clients: Comment on "Integrated treatment for jail recidivists with co-occurring psychiatric and substance use disorders". Community Mental Health Journal 42(4): 427-432, 2006. (26 refs.)

Drug Enforcement Administration. Drug Intelligence Brief: Change face of European drug policy. IN: Huggins LE, ed. Drug War Deadlock: The Policy Battle Continues. Stanford CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2005. pp. 247-257. (0 refs.)

This is one of two chapters in the concluding section that presents a summary position for either ending the war on drugs or continuing the battle. It provides an overview of drug policy in European countries. This includes harm reduction efforts, treatment, alternatives for those in the penal system, and a table outlining the penalties for drug trafficking.

Elonheimo H; Niemela S; Parkkola K; Multimaki P; Helenius H; Nuutila AM et al. Police-registered offenses and psychiatric disorders among young males - The Finnish "From a boy to a man" birth cohort study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 42(6): 477-484, 2007. (42 refs.)

Objective: To study associations between crime and psychiatric disorders among adolescent males in a representative population-based cohort study. Method The sample includes 2,712 Finnish boys born in 1981. Information on criminality consists of offenses registered in the Finnish National Police Register 1998-2001. Crime was classified according to frequency and type (drug, violent, property, traffic, and drunk driving offenses). Information on psychiatric diagnoses between 1999 and 2004 was collected from the Finnish National Military Register. Results: Of the 2,712 boys, 22% had a crime registration during the 4-year period, and 10% had at least one psychiatric disorder according to the Military Register. Those with psychiatric disorders accounted for 49% of all crimes. Of those with more than five crimes (n = 98), 59% had psychiatric diagnoses. After adjusting for other crime types and childhood socio-economic status, property crime was independently associated with several diagnoses: antisocial personality (APD), substance use (SUD), psychotic, anxiety, and adjustment disorders. Drug offending was independently associated with APD, SUD, and psychotic disorder, and traffic offenses with APD. Conclusions: Youth crime is predominantly associated with antisocial personality and substance use disorders. Crime prevention efforts should focus on boys showing a risk for antisocial and substance use problems. In particular, property, drug, and repeat offenders need mental health and substance use assessment. There is a need to develop integrated mental health and substance use treatment services for young offenders within or alongside the criminal justice system.

Evans E; Longshore D; Prendergast M; Urada D. Evaluation of the Substance Abuse and Crime Prevention Act: Client characteristics, treatment completion and re-offending three years after implementation. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs Supplement 3: 357-367, 2006. (15 refs.)

Representing a major shift in criminal justice policy, Proposition 36 became law in November 2000 as the Substance Abuse and Crime Prevention Act (SACPA), permitting eligible offenders to receive probation with drug treatment instead of probation or incarceration. UCLA's Integrated Substance Abuse Programs was chosen by the California Department of Alcohol and Drug Programs to conduct an independent evaluation of SACPA. Analysis of the first three years of data provides information on the flow of offenders through SACPA, client and program characteristics, treatment completion rates, and effects on re-offending. Results show that most eligible offenders chose to participate in SACPA; almost two-thirds of these went on to enter treatment. Compared to other treatment clients, SACPA treatment clients included fewer women, were predominately between 26 and 45 years old, were more likely to use methamphetamine, and had been using drugs longer. Most SACPA clients were referred to outpatient drug-free treatment regardless of primary drug problem, and about one-third completed treatment. Re-offending was lowest among SACPA offenders who completed treatment. Felony and misdemeanor drug arrests were higher among SACPA-era drug offenders than in a similar group of pre-SACPA drug offenders. Future reports will cover possible SACPA cost savings, additional clients outcomes, and overall lessons learned.

Feix J; Wolber G. Intoxication and settled insanity: A finding of not guilty by reason of insanity. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 35(2): 172-182, 2007. (27 refs.)

This article presents a case of first-degree murder for which the defendant was acquitted as not guilty by reason of insanity, based on a defense involving the concept of "settled insanity." The literature on settled insanity is reviewed and discussed in the context of voluntary and involuntary intoxication. Statute and case law from those jurisdictions in which settled insanity is specifically allowed as an acceptable threshold condition for the insanity defense define the concept as a permanent condition resulting from substance abuse, rather than the effects of intoxication, no matter how severe. Also discussed are potential criteria for this defense, including evidence that psychotic symptoms thought to be responsible for the crime were, in some manner, separate and apart from symptoms caused solely by voluntary acute intoxication. Other factors that may assist evaluators in differentiating settled insanity from the effects of acute intoxication are presented. It is recommended that evaluators attempt to determine the timing of the onset of psychotic symptoms in relation to substance abuse, the persistence of such symptoms beyond detoxification, and whether ongoing psychiatric treatment is necessary to ameliorate the symptoms beyond intoxication. In the case described, psychotic symptoms persisted long after acute intoxication and beyond the time when drugs or alcohol were detected in the accused's body, requiring clinical intervention for psychosis. Also, before the crime, the defendant had exhibited significant psychological difficulty. The evaluating clinician must still determine, even when a threshold condition is considered to be present, whether statutory criteria for the insanity defense (for the jurisdiction in which the crime allegedly took place) are met.

Friedmann PD; Taxman FS; Henderson CE. Evidence-based treatment practices for drug-involved adults in the criminal justice system. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 32(3): 267-277, 2007. (77 refs.)

Objective: The aim of this study was to estimate the extent and organizational correlates of evidence-based practices (EBPs) in correctional facilities and community-based substance abuse treatment programs that manage drug-involved adult offenders. Methods: Correctional administrators and treatment program directors affiliated with a national sample of 384 criminal justice and community-based programs providing substance abuse treatment to adult offenders in the United States were surveyed in 2004. Correctional administrators reported the availability of up to 13 specified EBPs, and treatment directors up to 15. The sum total of EBPs indicates their extent. Linear models regress the extent of EBPs on variables measuring structure and leadership, culture and climate, administrator attitudes, and network connectedness of the organization. Results: Most programs offer fewer than 60% of the specified EBPs to drug-involved offenders. In multiple regression models, offender treatment programs that provided more EBPs were community based, accredited, and network connected, with a performance-oriented, nonpunitive culture, more training resources, and leadership with a background in human services, a high regard for the value of substance abuse treatment, and an understanding of EBPs. Conclusions: The use of EBPs among facility- and community-based programs that serve drug-involved adult offenders has room for improvement. Initiatives to disseminate EBPs might target these institutional and environmental domains, but further research is needed to determine whether such organization interventions can promote the uptake of EBPs.

Gendel MH. Substance misuse and substance-related disorders in forensic psychiatry. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 29(3): 649-+, 2006. (51 refs.)

Forensic psychiatrists are frequently called on to work in the realm of substance misuse and addictive illness. From performing clinical work in corrections to conducting evaluations across various situations in civil, criminal, and regulatory contexts, forensic psychiatrists are confronted with situations in which they must make sense of individuals' use and misuse of drugs and toxins. Substance use disorders are challenging because they require knowledge of both the brain neurobiology and drug pharmacology, demand a conceptualization that accounts for voluntary and compulsive use, have broad and subtle clinical expression, present unusual diagnostic problems, and are the subject of strong social forces and stigma. This article reviews the substance-related issues that face the forensic psychiatrist.

Glaser BA; Cohen BJ. Treating juvenile substance abuse in the institutional setting. IN: Sims B, ed. Substance Abuse Treatment with Correctional Clients: Practical Implications for Institutional and Community Settings. Binghamton NY: Haworth Press, 2005. pp. 197-210. (27 refs.)

This chapter addresses the treatment of substance use problems of juveniles in institutional settings. It begins with a review of the literature. Among key issues identified are the presence of factors that are associated with adolescent substance abuse, namely family dysfunction, the presence of family members with a substance abuse problem. In addition there is an examination of the factors that distinguish substance abusing offenders from other offenders. Of note is a history of crimes against people rather than property, higher scores on the Somatic Complaints scale. There is also discussion of problems associated with treatment in secure juvenile centers. The chapter concludes with a description of a juvenile counseling and assessment program, which provides short-term treatment for substance-abusing youth. The description includes description of screening and assessment, goal setting and building cohesion, the roles of group leaders, termination and new member transition, and the five themes common in the group sessions -- family issues, triggers for drug/alcohol abuse, conflict resolution and anger management, and building strength and resiliency directions-- which serve as the theme for the five-module cycle of groups.

Golden JW; Sims B. Predctors of success and failure in correctional-based treatment programs. IN: Sims B, ed. Substance Abuse Treatment with Correctional Clients: Practical Implications for Institutional and Community Settings. Binghamton NY: Haworth Press, 2005. pp. 27-38. (22 refs.)

This chapter addresses the factors that are associated with success or failure of treatment for alcohol and drug problems provided in correctional-based programs. The key factors addressed include: history of mental health problems; educational level; self-concept; the length of time in treatment; and the nature of programming for aftercare. In addition it considers gender specific risk-factors.

Grella CE; Greenwell L. Correlates of parental status and attitudes toward parenting among substance-abusing women offenders. Prison Journal 86(1): 89-113, 2006. (73 refs.)

This study examined the correlates of loss of parental rights and attitudes toward parenting among a sample of substance-abusing women offenders (N=483). One third of the sample had lost parental rights to a child; these mothers were younger, but had more children, were less likely to have ever worked or been married, initiated regular drug use at a younger age, and were more likely to have been in foster care or adopted themselves and to have engaged in sex work. Higher self-efficacy, decision making ability, social conformity, and childhood problems were associated with less risky parental attitudes, whereas depression, lower education, and non-White ethnicity were associated with greater risk. Services that address the psychosocial needs of women offenders may increase the likelihood of successful family reunification following incarceration.

Grella CE; Greenwell L; Prendergast M; Farabee D; Hall E; Cartier J et al. Organizational characteristics of drug abuse treatment programs for offenders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 32(3): 291-300, 2007. (74 refs.)

This article examines the association between the organizational characteristics of drug abuse treatment programs for offenders and the provision of wraparound services and three types of treatment orientations. Data are from the National Criminal Justice Treatment Practices Survey, which was conducted with program directors (N = 217). A greater number of wraparound services provided were associated with inpatient treatment, specialized treatment facilities, community setting (vs. correctional), services provided for more types of client populations, college-educated staff, and planned treatment for > 180 days. Therapeutic community orientation was associated with prison-based treatment and specialized treatment facilities. Cognitive-behavioral therapy orientation was associated with higher perceived importance of community treatment, more perceived staff influence on treatment, and treatment for 91-180 days. The 12-step orientation was most strongly associated with having staff specialized in substance abuse. Study findings have implications for developing effective reentry programs for offenders that bridge correctional and community treatment.

Henderson CE; Young DW; Jainchill N; Hawke J; Farkas S; Davis RM. Program use of effective drug abuse treatment practices for juvenile offenders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 32(3): 279-290, 2007. (89 refs.)

This study examined the extent to which organizational context predicted use of consensus-based elements of effective substance abuse treatment practices with juvenile offenders. Participants were either directors of substance abuse treatment programs located in residential facilities (institutional sample) or directors of community-based treatment agencies providing services to adolescents in their home communities (community sample). The two settings differed significantly in the number and types of effective practices they were using. Community programs were more likely to have staff qualified to deliver substance abuse treatment, involve families in treatment, and assess their treatment outcomes. In contrast, institutional programs were more likely to provide comprehensive services. Resources dedicated to training, internal support for new programming, and network connectedness with non-criminal-justice facilities were associated with greater use of effective practices. These findings highlight the importance of establishing corrections-community partnerships designed to promote continuity of care for juvenile offenders.

Hiller ML; Knight K; Simpson DD. Recidivism following mandated residential substance abuse treatment for felony probationers. Prison Journal 86(2): 230-241, 2006. (43 refs.)

Substance abuse is common among probationers, and treatment programs have become an integral part of community corrections. The current study presents findings from a modified therapeutic community (TC) serving drug-abusing probationers in a large metropolitan area. Findings show that treatment dropouts were more likely to be rearrested for a serious felony within 2 years of leaving the TC program than were treatment graduates and probationers from an untreated comparison group. Also, a significantly smaller proportion of graduates were rearrested during the 2nd year after release compared to those who drop out of treatment or who do not receive treatment. Logistic regression analysis that adjusted for pre-existing group differences suggests there was a small impact of the TC program on recidivism, with treatment graduates only slightly less likely to be arrested within 2 years of leaving the program.

Hiller ML; Knight K; Saum CA; Simpson DD. Social functioning, treatment dropout, and recidivism of probationers mandated to a modified therapeutic community. Criminal Justice and Behavior 33(6): 738-759, 2006. (61 refs.)

Few studies have examined the impact of corrections-based drug abuse treatment programs on changes in social functioning. The current study, therefore, examines social functioning (i.e., hostility, risk taking, and social conformity) among 406 probationers in a modified therapeutic community. Data are collected prospectively and include intake, during treatment, and posttreatment information. Findings show that social functioning changes modestly during the first 90 days of treatment. Specifically, risk taking decreases with time, social conformity increases, and unexpectedly, hostility increases across time in treatment. Hostility is the only social functioning factor that predicts treatment dropout. Findings show there are no associations between social functioning indicators and recidivism both I and 2 years after treatment. However, recidivism within I year of treatment release is associated with criminal history, and recidivism within 2 years is associated with age.

Johnson H. Concurrent drug and alcohol dependency and mental health problems among incarcerated women. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 39(2): 190-217, 2006. (63 refs.)

Research suggests that the determinants and pathways of substance use and mental health problems differ for women and men in important ways and therefore women's experiences merit special attention. The 2003 Drug Use Careers of Offenders (DUCO) female study is used in this article to examine the prevalence, patterns and predictors of drug and alcohol dependency and mental health problems among incarcerated women. Over half of the women in this study had concurrent substance dependencies and mental health problems in the 6 months prior to arrest. Factors associated with having mental health problems include past experiences of sexual and emotional abuse, prescription drug use, drug dependency, and concurrent drug and alcohol dependency. Drug dependency was associated with involvement in crime or sex work to earn a living, early exposure to drug problems in the family of origin, use of prescription drugs, previous adult prison, and mental health problems. Alcohol dependency was associated with Indigenous status and physical abuse. The results of this study can contribute to treatment planning for women offenders. The finding that repeated admissions to prison is a predictor of drug dependency suggests that identification and treatment of drug problems is frequently absent, ineffective or not suited to the particular needs of women.

Kouvonen P; Skretting A; Rosenqvist P, eds. Drugs in the Nordic and Baltic Countries: Common Concerns, Different Realities. NAD Monograph no. 48. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2006. (Chapter refs.)

At a meeting in September 2003, ministers for narcotic drug policy issues from Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden; from the three autonomous territories of the Faroe Islands, Greenland and �land; and from Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania expressed their concern about the escalating drug problem. They issued a letter of intent which laid down common political objectives and priorities for a long-term partnership between the Nordic and Baltic countries on narcotic drug policy issues. In this document, drug abuse and drug trafficking are identified as international problems that require international solutions. The aim is to establish a political partnership between the Nordic and Baltic countries in order to counter the problems of drug abuse and trafficking by means of subregional and regional international cooperation and by coordinated national efforts to prevent and reduce the supply and demand of illicit drugs, based on a restrictive and humanistic policy in line with UN conventions. The needs for cooperation and collaboration were highlighted in eight areas, ranging from supporting mutual knowledge and data collection to specified actions within primary prevention, law enforcement as well as treatment and rehabilitation. It was emphasised that in order to be effective, the policy must be characterised by a multidisciplinary three-pillar approach that encompasses prevention, law enforcement and treatment. This report aims to meet the above request. It describes the latest developments in drug experimenting, drug abuse and the consequences of abuse in the region consisting of the Nordic countries, the Baltic states and the St. Petersburg area, as well as the measures being taken to counteract abuse or its consequences. The report is organized into seven chapters. Following a summary chapter outlining the main findings, there is discussion of chapters that outline the prevalence and patterns of drug use; the consequences of drug use; treatment and harm reduction measures; drug use in prison; drug supply and seizures; the priorities and developments in prevention; and current national policies.

Kutin JJ; Alberti S. Law enforcement and harm minimisation. IN: Hamilton M; KIng T; Ritter A, eds. Drug Use in Australia: Preventing Harm, 2nd Ed.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. pp. 144-158. (320 book refs.)

This chapter outlines law-enforcement strategies that have been used in Australia in recent years. It also makes comparison of approaches from Australia to other countries, particularly the Netherlands, in which one of the authors has worked, and which has a reputation as a liberal country. Among the constructs addressed are the differences between legalization, decriminalization, and de-penalization. Among newer approaches considered are diversion and depenalization programs, cannabis cautioning programs, and drug courts.

Leong GB; Leisenring SE; Dean MD. Commentary: Intoxication and settled insanity - Unsettled matters. (editorial). Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 35(2): 183-187, 2007. (10 refs.)

The role of exogenous substances in the genesis of mental symptoms has found relevance in some jurisdictions when a defense of settled insanity is raised. However, the current nosology and knowledge base reveal ambiguity and unresolved questions about the present science related to settled insanity.

Leukefeld CG; Staton M; Webster JM; McDonald HS. Treatment of persons under legal restrictions. IN: Strain EC; Stitzer ML, eds. The Treatment of Opioid Dependence. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006. pp. 485-496. (49 refs.)

This chapter begins by an examining the association between drugs and crime. It also considers new models of drug abuse treatment provided in criminal justice systems, including jails and prisons. Diversion programs the combine treatment and sanctions and use community treatment are also described. A major theme is that patients in treatment due to legal pressures, while potentially viewed as a special population, in fact to not differ from non-criminal-justice-involved patients either in terms of psychosocial characteristics or demographic characteristics. Historically the criminal justice system has advocated drug-free programs for its referrals, and effectively precluded drug-substitution therapy. The rationale for this is discussed and current referral patterns are discussed along with trends in the criminal justice system referral mechanisms and practices.

Levy R; Zelkowicz A. Efficiency evaluation of a police operation to fight the drug plague: Distribution unit weight as an objective index. Journal of Forensic Sciences 52(4): 909-912, 2007. (6 refs.)

Lod, a city near Tel-Aviv, is considered the main drug distribution center in Israel. A major police undercover operation in Lod, lasting close to a year, was terminated in May 2003. The success or failure of such an operation is frequently measured by the number of arrests made, the hierarchical level of the dealers arrested, the number of drug stations closed down, and the decrease in heroin seizures following the operation. In this work we suggest using an additional parameter, which has a scientific, objective basis, namely, comparing the changes in the average user weight unit ("dose") before and after the operation. We found that prior to the operation the average weight per unit was 1.1 g. Three months after the operation terminated the average weight per unit had decreased to 0.8 g and remained there for at least 4 months before rising again.

Lewis CF; Fields C; Rainey E. A study of geriatric forensic evaluees: Who are the violent elderly? Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 34(3): 324-332, 2006. (31 refs.)

The objective of this study was to examine a sample (n = 99) of elderly forensic evaluees to describe the psychiatric, medical, legal, and demographic characteristics of the sample and to examine which of these factors is associated with violent charges. Clinical data were gathered through retrospective chart review of patients aged 60 and over who were referred for criminal responsibility/competency-to-stand-triaI evaluations from 1991 to 1998 at William S. Hall Psychiatric Institute in Columbia, South Carolina. Most (67.7%) of the sample was alcohol dependent, nearly one half (44.4%) had dementia, and close to one third (32.3%) had antisocial personality disorder. The majority of patients (60.6%) were facing violent charges and most (80.8%) were recidivists. In multivariate analysis, race, outpatient treatment status, crime location, and paranoia were all associated with violent charges. The implications and limitations of these data as applied to forensic treatment settings are discussed.

Lociciro S; Hayoz P; Esseiva P; Dujourdy L; Besacier F; Margot P. Cocaine profiling for strategic intelligence purposes, a cross-border project between France and Switzerland - Part I. Optimisation and harmonisation of the profiling method. Forensic Science International 167(2-3): 220-228, 2007. (27 refs.)

Optimisation and harmonisation of analytical and statistical methodology have been carried out between two forensic laboratories (Lausanne, CH and Lyon, F) in order to provide drug intelligence for cross-border cocaine seizures. The aim was to improve the gas chromatographic analysis of cocaine samples for profiling. Some important validation parameters were tested to verify the developed method and demonstrate its profiling capacity: the selectivity of the method with retention time reproducibility, the choice of a derivatisation agent improving the chromatography (MSTFA, BSA, TMSI and BSTFA + TMCS 1%), the cutting agents influence (matrix effect), the influence of the sample storage conditions and the sample quantity to weigh for analyses. Eight main alkaloids, which represent the sample signature, have been selected: ecgonine methyl ester, ecgonine, tropacocaine, benzoylecgonine, norcocaine, cis- and trans-cinnamoylcocaine and 3,4,5-trimethoxycocaine. Their stability in the solvent used (CHCl3/pyridine) was demonstrated. In order to reach the final objective, which is the comparison of samples seized and analyzed in two different laboratories, the harmonisation of the profiling method between the two laboratories had to be ensured and is the subject of ongoing research.

Marlowe DB. Depot naltrexone in lieu of incarceration: A behavioral analysis of coerced treatment for addicted offenders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 31(2): 131-139, 2006. (72 refs.)

This article is part of a series of articles examining a proposal to offer depot naltrexone to certain nonviolent opiate-addicted criminal offenders in exchange for release from incarceration or diversion from prosecution. This "negative-reinforcement" behavioral paradigm could have a better chance of success than what has heretofore been attempted with drug-abusing offenders. Traditional correctional efforts have been largely unsuccessful due to the complexities of implementation and the side effects of punishment. Although positive reinforcement can be more efficacious, it has often been strenuously resisted on the ground that it is inequitable to reward antisocial individuals for doing what is minimally expected of most citizens. Negative reinforcement steers between these hurdles by avoiding the iatrogenic effects of punishment, while also being palatable to stakeholders. More research is needed to identify the effects, costs, and side effects of negative-reinforcement arrangements for drug offenders. The current proposal provides an excellent platform for conducting this research because the target intervention (depot naltrexone) is demonstrably efficacious, nonpsychoactive, and has few, if any, side effects. Therefore, use of this medication would be unlikely to invoke the same types of legal and ethical objections that have traditionally been levied against the use of psychoactive medications with vulnerable populations of institutionalized offenders. Specific recommendations are offered for questions that must be addressed in future research studies.

Marlowe DB. Judicial supervision of drug-abusing offenders. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs Supplement 3: 323-331, 2006. (54 refs.)

In recent years, judges have been exercising steadily increasing influence over the disposition and management of drug abusers involved with the criminal justice system. This appears to have been motivated by a perception on the part of some judges that the courts are uniquely situated to bring about optimal outcomes for these individuals. In fact, the results of experimental and survey studies provide substantial support for this perspective, but only with regard to high-risk drug offenders who have more severe antisocial predispositions or a history of not having responded to standard community-based drug abuse treatment services. This article reviews that research evidence and considers its implications for designing effective and cost-efficient policies and programs for drug-abusing criminal offenders.

Marlowe DB; Festinger DS; Dugosh KL; Lee PA; Benasutti KM. Adapting judicial supervision to the risk level of drug offenders: Discharge and 6-month outcomes from a prospective matching study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 88(Supplement 2): S4-S13, 2007. (37 refs.)

This article reports recent findings from a program of experimental research examining the effects of adapting judicial supervision to the risk level of drug-abusing offenders. Prior studies revealed that high-risk participants with (1) antisocial personality disorder or (2) a history of drug abuse treatment performed significantly better in drug court when they were scheduled to attend frequent, bi-weekly judicial status hearings in court. Low-risk participants performed equivalently regardless of the schedule of court hearings. The current study prospectively matched misdemeanor drug court clients to the optimal schedule of court hearings based upon an assessment of their risk status, and compared outcomes to those of clients randomly assigned to the standard schedule of court hearings. Results confirmed that high-risk participants graduated at a higher rate, provided more drug-negative urine specimens at 6 months post-admission, and reported significantly less drug use and alcohol intoxication at 6 months post-admission when they were matched to bi-weekly hearings as compared to the usual schedule of hearings. These findings yield practical information for enhancing the efficacy and cost-efficiency of drug court services. Directions for future research on adaptive programming for drug offenders are discussed.

Messner SF; Galea S; Tardiff KJ; Tracy M; Bucciarelli A; Piper TM et al. Policing, drugs, and the homicide decline in New York City in the 1990s. Criminology 45(2): 385-413, 2007. (43 refs.)

This research reassesses the role of policing and drugs in the sharp homicide decline in New York City in the 1990s. Drawing on theoretical arguments about "broken windows" policing and lethal violence associated with the diffusion of crack cocaine, we estimate the effects of measures of misdemeanor arrests and cocaine prevalence on homicide rates with pooled, cross-sectional time-series data for 74 New York City precincts over the 1990-1999 period. The results of mixed regression models reveal a significant negative effect of changes in misdemeanor arrests and a significant positive effect of changes in cocaine prevalence on changes in total homicide rates. Additional analyses of homicide disaggregated by weapon indicate that the effects of misdemeanor arrests and cocaine prevalence emerge for gun-related but not for non-gun-related homicides. Overall, the research generally supports influential interpretations of the homicide decline in New York City but also raises questions about underlying mechanisms that warrant more inquiry in future research.

Miles H; Dutheil L; Welsby I; Haider D. 'Just Say No': A preliminary evaluation of a three-stage model of integrated treatment for substance use problems in conditions of medium security. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 18(2): 141-159, 2007. (53 refs.)

Preliminary outcome data evaluating a three-stage model of integrated treatment for substance use problems in conditions of medium security are presented to address the lack of previous research in this area. Stage 1 and Stage 2 are 12-week treatment groups, supporting participants in becoming and remaining substance free, respectively, through motivational interviewing, psycho-education, and relapse prevention approaches. 'Just Say No' (JSN) is a participant-led social group to support continued abstinence throughout admission and up to six months post-discharge. Case notes of all in-patients in 2005 were screened, revealing that 32 (74%) of inpatients had a prior history of substance use problems. Of the 19 who received treatment, 14 (74%) became abstinent by the end of 2005, rising to 15 (79%, missing 3) by the end of June 2006. However five refused, of whom three (60%) became abstinent, and eight were not referred due to unstable mental state or imminent discharge. There was a significant effect of treatment on whether or not in-patients became drug-free, although only JSN attendance had a significant effect on whether they remained drug-free. By the end of treatment (and maintained at six-month follow-up), participants' self-reported insight and confidence to make changes to their substance use had increased, and there was a trend towards participants reporting more adaptive beliefs about substances and less craving for cannabis. Participants were also satisfied with the treatment intervention.

Morse SJ. The impact of behavioral genetics on the criminal law: Addiction, genetics, and criminal responsibility. Law and Contemporary Problems 69(Winter/Spring): 164-207, 2006. (132 legal refs.)

This article has two simple underlying theses. The first is that it is impossible to understand the relation of any variable to criminal responsibility without having in place an account of criminal responsibility. The second is that discovery of genetic or of any other physical or psychosocial cause of action raises no new issues concerning responsibility, and discovery of such causes does not per se create an excusing or mitigating condition for criminal conduct or any other type of behavior. This article begins in Part II with a brief description of the phenomenology of addiction, describing generally what is known about the behavioral aspects of addiction in addition to the basic criteria of craving, seeking, and using. Thinking sensibly about the relation of addiction to criminal responsibility is impossible unless it is first understood that this condition is "defined solely in behavioural terms." Part III addresses the contrast between the legal and scientific images of behavior, using the disease concept of addiction, now fueled by discoveries of genetic predisposition, as a prime example of the contrast. Part IV offers a general model of criminal responsibility to guide the analysis of responsibility for addiction-related criminal behavior, offering the best positive account of the present system. The model's essential criteria are behavioral, broadly understood to refer to actions and mental states. Part V deals with persistent confusions about responsibility. Part VI describes those aspects of addiction, if any, for which persons might be held morally or legally responsible, concluding that only actions related to addiction are appropriate objects for ascribing criminal responsibility. Part VII addresses the causal role genetics plays in explaining addiction. This discussion is deferred until this point because, as earlier parts explain, no particular causal explanation of any behavior, including a biological explanation, entails necessary legal consequences. In particular, the existence of a genetic explanation for addiction does not demonstrate that addicts are not acting when they seek and use substances or engage in other activities related to their addiction and a genetic explanation produces no necessary legal conclusion concerning responsibility for such addiction-related actions. Finally, Part VIII considers individual and social responsibility for the addiction-related actions. It begins by discussing in detail the meaning of those features of addiction - subjective craving and compulsion - that seem the most likely predicates for excuse or mitigation. It argues that understanding the biological roots of craving does not yet yield valid information concerning the strength of craving and seemingly compulsive behavior. This part next addresses the two leading theoretical and legal candidates for an excusing condition - internal coercion and lack of the capacity for rationality. It concludes that most addicts should be responsible for most criminal behavior motivated by addiction, but that addiction can in some cases affect the agent's ability "to grasp and be guided by reason." The last section of this part considers whether society is responsible for addiction-related actions. It concludes that even if most addicts should be held responsible for addiction-related behavior, sensible social policy can do much to reduce both the prevalence of addiction and concomitant criminal behavior. The final part of the paper discusses three legal proposals for reducing the costs associated with addictions and for treating addicts fairly.

Nelson BK. Adding fuel to the fire: United States v. Booker and the crack versus craack versus powder cocaine sentancing disparity. University of Richmond Law Review 40: 1161-1191, 2006. (256 refs.)

The sentencing structures for crack and powder cocaine have been dramatically different since the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 established a 100:1 ratio as the penalty differential between the two drugs, and set the same punishment for five grams of crack as for five hundred grams of powder cocaine. The ratio was followed in the Federal Sentencing Guidelines (the "Sentencing Guidelines") and has evoked considerable criticism over the past twenty years. Litigants have challenged the ratio in courts, judges have expressed their displeasure with the ratio, and the United States Sentencing Commission (the "Sentencing Commission" or the "Commission") has issued three reports to Congress disapproving of the ratio. Still, offenders have been consistently sentenced according to the once mandatory Sentencing Guidelines following the ratio. In January 2005, the Supreme Court handed down its decision in United States v. Booker, 5 effectively rendering the Sentencing Guidelines advisory instead of mandatory, as they once were. Although the 100:1 ratio lives on in the mandatory minimums, the Sentencing Guidelines would often provide for a sentence harsher than the mandatory minimum. Now, courts have the flexibility to depart from the Sentencing Guidelines when dealing with the crack/powder disparity. The courts may use a lower ratio, as the Sentencing Commission and numerous scholars and judges have suggested, provided that they still abide by the mandatory minimum set forth in 18 U.S.C. 3553(a). In order to understand fully where the Booker decision leaves us with respect to the crack/powder debate, it is necessary to understand the background of cocaine and the history leading up to Booker. To that end, Part II of this comment discusses the history and background of cocaine, including a brief history of drug use, a comparison of crack and powder cocaine, the formation of the 100:1 ratio, and responses to the ratio's formation since 1986. Part III analyzes the topic of sentencing without guidelines, sentencing after the imposition of the Sentencing Guidelines, and the erosion of the Guidelines leading up to Booker. Part IV then combines the two broad topics and analyze the impact that the Booker decision will likely have on the ongoing debate over the penalties for crack and powder cocaine. It will explain how the decision adds more momentum to the debate, and argue that it adds enough fuel to the fire to encourage changes to the current penalty structure.

Nissen LB. Reclaiming futures: Communities helping teens overcome drugs, alcohol and crime: A new practice framework for juvenile justice. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 39(1): 51-58, 2007. (31 refs.)

Increasing numbers of youth entering the juvenile justice system on drug-related charges require new practice frameworks for youth advocates. Screening, assessment and intervention capabilities have not kept pace with the youth who need them. This article presents an overview of a new approach, based on the system of care movement, to integrated care service provision for this population. Utilizing the Reclaiming Futures initiative-being piloted in 10 communities in the United States-as a model for change, the article suggests that juvenile justice, in partnership with treatment and other community stakeholders, can have a positive impact on this social problem.

O'Brien C; Cornish JW. Naltrexone for probationers and parolees. (editorial). Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 31(2): 107-111, 2006. (22 refs.)

Olsen ACR. Drug use in prison. IN: Kouvonen P; Skretting A; Rosenqvist P, eds. Drugs in the Nordic and Baltic Countries: Common Concerns, Different Realities. NAD Monograph no. 48. Helsinki, Finland: Nordic Alcohol and Drug Council, 2006. pp. 105-126. (67 refs.)

The increase in drug use and drug-related infectious diseases has also created new problems for prisons and fundamentally changed the reality of prison life. In general, there is a growing focus on health services in the prisons of all the Nordic and Baltic countries. In Estonia, for example, the aim is to integrate prison health care into the general health care system by 2006. Drug prevention in prisons has received increasing attention in recent strategies and action plans in the Baltic region, but implementation and follow-up of those plans remain inadequate. As most Baltic prison systems were developed under Soviet occupation, the growing problem of drug use in these societies in general meant that large numbers of prisoners gathered in very large institutions. Implementation of the new strategies might be difficult in these large institutions, and the main focus in many of the Baltic countries remains on preventing drugs from entering prisons.

Palk G; Davey J; Freeman J. Policing alcohol-related incidents: A study of time and prevalence. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 30(1): 82-92, 2007. (30 refs.)

Purpose - The purpose of this paper was to investigate the prevalence and impact of alcohol-related incidents on police resources in a major Australasian region. Design/methodology/approach - The paper shows that participants in the current study were first response operational police officers who completed a modified activity log over a five-week period, identifying the type, time spent on, and the number of alcohol-related incidents that were attended (n = 31090). Findings - The findings in this paper indicate that a substantial proportion of current police work involves attendance at alcohol-related incidents i.e. 25 percent. The most common incidents police attended were vehicle and/or traffic matters, disturbances and offences against property, which were also the most likely to involve alcohol. These events are most likely to occur in the early hours of the morning on the weekends, and importantly, usually take longer to complete than non-alcohol related incidents. Originality/value - The findings in the paper highlight the pervasive nature of alcohol across a range of offences and provides a current perspective regarding the considerable impact that alcohol-related crime has on policing resources.

Patapis NS; Nordstrom BR. Research on naltrexone in the criminal justice system. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 31(2): 113-115, 2006. (7 refs.)

Many parolees and probationers are opioid abusers, and substance abuse is a leading factor for the revocation of probation, parole, and other alternatives to incarceration. The opioid antagonist naltrexone would appear to be an excellent treatment for opioid abuse and dependence in this population and the authors sought to systematically review this literature. Using the PubMed database, the authors identified large bodies of criminal justice (CJS) and naltrexone literature. The search terms used in both searches were crosschecked to identify all articles that involved research on naltrexone in the CJS. Only two articles were identified. The lack of research on naltrexone in the criminal justice system highlights the need for more research on naltrexone in our overburdened CJS.

Patenaude AL. A qualitiative exploration into a prison substance abuse treatment program: "I tell them what they want to hear". IN: Sims B, ed. Substance Abuse Treatment with Correctional Clients: Practical Implications for Institutional and Community Settings. Binghamton NY: Haworth Press, 2005. pp. 73-93. (29 refs.)

The chapter presents the results of a qualitative study that examines the change process and dynamics within substance abuse treatment program in the prison setting. A number of prisons conduct therapeutic community programs. One of these was the site of the study reported here. The author describes the methodology, reviews the major findings. Within this discussion is consideration of the issue of honesty and candor of prisoner-clients in a treatment setting in which clients are without personal freedom.

Prenzler T. Senior police managers' views on integrity testing, and drug and alcohol testing. Policing 29(3): 394-407, 2006. (22 refs.)

Purpose - To ascertain the attitudes of senior police managers toward the deployment of integrity tests, and drug and alcohol tests, in misconduct prevention. Design/methodology/approach - A questionnaire-based survey was conducted of 114, mainly Australian, senior police managers. Findings - Responses revealed very high levels of support for targeted testing in more serious cases of suspected corruption. There was also moderate support for random testing in serious cases. Views were divided on both targeted and random testing in less serious cases. There was very strong support for alcohol and drug testing. Overall, the results show willingness on the part of police leaders to embrace radical measures to combat corruption. Originality/value - Integrity tests involving simulated misconduct opportunities, and related drug and alcohol testing programs, have been used in a number of jurisdictions as a means of revealing and deterring police corruption. However, such tests have been criticised as being unethical, especially in terms of "entrapment". There are also practical issues regarding allocating scarce resources to a testing program and potential pitfalls with unintended consequences such as conflicts and injuries. Policy level decisions to develop testing programs will therefore depend to a considerable extent on the beliefs of senior managers about the utility and fairness of these strategies.

Presenza LJ. Naltrexone as a "mandate" or as a choice: Comments on "Judicially mandated naltrexone use by criminal offenders: A legal analysis" (editorial). Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 31(2): 129-130, 2006. (0 refs.)

Ramchand R; Pacula RL; Iguchi MY. Racial differences in marijuana-users' risk of arrest in the United States. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 84(3): 264-272, 2006. (18 refs.)

A recent study of arrest data show that African Americans are 2.5 times more likely to be arrested for marijuana possession offences than Whites, even though general prevalence estimates show that they are no more likely to be using. The current study investigates the purchase patterns of marijuana users from the 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) to evaluate whether differences in purchasing behaviors exist across racial groups. Although in general people who purchase marijuana are more likely to buy in private settings and from someone they know, this analysis shows that African Americans are statistically more likely to engage in risky purchasing behaviors that increase their likelihood of arrest. Using trivariate probit regression with demographic, drug use, and drug market covariates, analyses reveal that African Americans are nearly, twice as likely to buy outdoors (0.31 versus 0.14), three times more likely to buy from a stranger (0.30 versus 0.09), and significantly more likely to buy away from their homes (0.61 versus 0.48). These results provide an additional explanation for the differential in arrest rates between African Americans and Whites.

Rhodes T; Platt L; Sarang A; Vlasov A; Mikhailova L; Monaghan G. Street policing, injecting drug use and harm reduction in a Russian city: A qualitative study of police perspectives. Journal of Urban Health 83(5): 911-925, 2006. (58 refs.)

We undertook a qualitative exploration of police perspectives on injecting drug use and needle and syringe access among injecting drug users (ID Us) in a Russian city that has witnessed explosive spread of HIV associated with drug injecting. Twenty-seven in-depth qualitative interviews were conducted in May 2002 with police officers of varying rank who reported having regular contact with ID Us. All interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed, translated and coded thematically. Accounts upheld an approach to Policing that emphasised high street-based visibility and close surveillance of ID US. IDUs were depicted as 'potential criminals' warranting a 'pre-emptive' approach to the prevention of drug-related crime. Street policing was described as a means of maintaining close surveillance leading to the official registration of persons suspected or proven to be users of illicit drugs. Such registration enabled further ongoing surveillance, including through stop and search procedures. While aware that drug users' reluctance to carry injecting equipment linked to their fears of detention or arrest, accounts suggested that the confiscation of previously used injecting equipment can constitute evidence in relation to drugs possession charges and that discovery of clean injecting equipment may be sufficient to raise suspicion and/or further investigation, including through stop and search or questioning. Our findings suggest an uneasy relationship between street policing and needle and syringe access, whereby policing strategies can undermine an HIV prevention ethos promoting needle and syringe accessibility among ID Us. We conclude that facilitating partnerships between policing agencies and HIV prevention initiatives are a critical feature of creating environments conducive for risk reduction.

Romero EG; Teplin LA; McClelland GM; Abram KM; Welty LJ; Washburn JJ. A longitudinal study of the prevalence, development, and persistence of HIV/sexually transmitted infection risk behaviors in delinquent youth: Implications for health care in the community. (review). Pediatrics 119(5): E1126-E1141, 2007. (102 refs.)

OBJECTIVES. Our goal was to examine the prevalence, development, and persistence of drug and sex risk behaviors that place delinquent youth at risk for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. METHODS. At the baseline interview, HIV/sexually transmitted infection drug and sex risk behaviors were assessed in a stratified random sample of 800 juvenile detainees aged 10 to 18 years. Participants were reinterviewed approximately 3 years later. The final sample in these analyses (n = 724) included 316 females and 408 males; there were 393 African American participants, 198 Hispanic participants, 131 non-Hispanic white participants, and 2 participants who self-identified their race as "other." RESULTS. More than 60% of youth had engaged in >= 10 risk behaviors at their baseline interview, and nearly two thirds of them persisted in >= 10 risk behaviors at follow-up. Among youth living in the community, many behaviors were more prevalent at follow-up than at baseline. Among incarcerated youth, the opposite pattern prevailed. Compared with females, males had higher prevalence rates of many HIV/sexually transmitted infection risk behaviors and were more likely to persist in some behaviors and develop new ones. Yet, injection risk behaviors were more prevalent among females than males and were also more likely to develop and persist. Overall, there were few racial and ethnic differences in patterns of HIV/sexually transmitted infection risk behaviors; most involved the initiation and persistence of substance use among non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics. CONCLUSIONS. Because detained youth have a median stay of only 2 weeks, HIV/sexually transmitted infection risk behaviors in delinquent youth are a community public health problem, not just a problem for the juvenile justice system. Improving the coordination among systems that provide HIV/sexually transmitted infection interventions to youth primary care, education, mental health, and juvenile justice-can reduce the prevalence of risk behaviors and substantially reduce the spread of HIV/sexually transmitted infection in young people.

Shearer RA. Treatment motivation characteristics of offenders who abuse substances. IN: Sims B, ed. Substance Abuse Treatment with Correctional Clients: Practical Implications for Institutional and Community Settings. Binghamton NY: Haworth Press, 2005. pp. 39-56. (49 refs.)

This chapter addresses the issues related to motivation of those in the criminal justice system in respect to addressing their alcohol-drug problems. It presents the stages of change model and the University of Rhode Island Change Assessment (URICA) reearch which allows tailoring interventions to the stages of change. In this context it considers the difference between compliance and superficial change versus internalization of changes. It also reviews material related to resistance to treatment.

Shoham E; Gideon L; Weisburd DL; Vilner Y. When "more"of a program is not necessarily better: Drug prevention in the Sharon prison. Israel Law Review 39(Spring): 105-127, 2006. (48 legal refs.)

This study examines outcomes from the first prison-based therapeutic community, for drug addicted offenders, implemented at the Sharon prison during 1994-1997. The article describes the program that took place and the process of treatment experienced by those who participated in the program. Using a Cox Proportional Hazard Regression Model (CPHRM) to calculate Hazard of Recidivism, a sample of 421 offenders who participated in the program was analyzed to evaluate program outcomes, while indicating factors that increase/decrease hazard of recidivism. Our findings from the CPHRM revealed that length of time in the program is one of the strongest predictors of hazard of recidivism. However, different from other studies which argue that "the more the better, "findings from this study question such an assumption. Additionally, findings from the above multivariate analysis suggest that criminal history (i.e. age on set, and number of prior arrests), significantly increase hazards of recidivism. Results of the study are discussed in regard to the increase in prison population, expected benefits of treating incarcerated offenders, and the legal aspects of prisoners' rights.

Sims B. Treating the substance-addicted offender: Theory and practice. IN: Sims B, ed. Substance Abuse Treatment with Correctional Clients: Practical Implications for Institutional and Community Settings. Binghamton NY: Haworth Press, 2005. pp. 9-25. (28 refs.)

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the nature of alcohol and drug abuse. It presents major theoretical explanations for alcohol and drug use as well as theories about the etiology of abuse and dependence. It also provides an overview of treatment approaches. It concludes with consideration of the implications for treatment in the correctional environment.

Sims B; DuPont-Morales MA. Restrictive intermediate punishment programming: A community-based treatment program fro substance-addicted correctional clients. IN: Sims B, ed. Substance Abuse Treatment with Correctional Clients: Practical Implications for Institutional and Community Settings. Binghamton NY: Haworth Press, 2005. pp. 175-194. (13 refs.)

The purpose of this chapter is to describe how several Pennsylvania counties were able to implement a substance abuse treatment program, with state funds. It outlines the process of developing a protocol for collection of data on offenders and reports preliminary findings from the first 18 months of operation. Changes in corrections philosophies and a movement from punishment to rehabilitation is credited as assisting the initiation of substance abuse treatment in corrections setting. "Restrictive intermediate punishment programming" is a phrase for the provision of intensive treatment to drug related offenders of nonviolent crimes, in lieu of incarceration. The Pennsylvania Program is summarized, along with a description of how eligibility is determined, the number of clients entering treatment, inical level of care, history of prior treatemnt, length of time in treatment and treatment outcomes.

Sims B, ed. Substance Abuse Treatment with Correctional Clients: Practical Implications for Institutional and Community Settings. Binghamton NY: Haworth Press, 2005. (Chapter refs.)

This volume with 12 chapters and 21 contributors is organized into three sections. It cover the current research finds and their policy implications for treating alcohol- and drug-addicted correctional clients. The first section, entitled "the Nature of the Problem" provides a review of the theoretical explanations for substance abuse, evidence-based treatment programs for substance abusers, predictors of treatment outcome, and the role of motivation. The second section, "Institutional-Based Treatment Programs" addresses the substance-addicted offender in the institutional setting. Individual chapters deal with the therapeutic community and residential programs. Section three looks at community-based treatment of criminal justice populations. Individual chapters deal with drug-diverseion courts and their impact on recidivism, initiating treatment, and a restrictive intermediate punishment programming. The fourth section addresses three special populations, with chapters on treating juveniles in an institutional setting, the effectiveness of counseling with adolescent females, adult women and the role of gender-specific programs.

Stevens A; Berto D; Frick U; Hunt N; Kerschl V; McSweeney T et al. The relationship between legal status, perceived pressure and motivation in treatment for drug dependence: Results from a European study of quasi-compulsory treatment. European Addiction Research 12(4): 197-209, 2006. (48 refs.)

This paper reports on intake data from Quasi-Compulsory Treatment in Europe, a study of quasi-compulsory treatment (QCT)for drug dependent offenders. It explores the link between formal legal coercion, perceived pressure to be in treatment and motivation amongst a sample of 845 people who entered treatment for drug dependence in five European countries, half of them in quasi-compulsory treatment and half 'voluntarily'. Using both quantitative and qualitative data, it suggests that those who enter treatment under QCT do perceive greater pressure to be in treatment, but that this does not necessarily lead to higher or lower motivation than 'volunteers'. Many drug-dependent offenders value QCT as an opportunity to get treatment. Motivation is mutable and can be developed or diminished by the quality of support and services offered to drug-dependent offenders.

Stohr MK; Hemmens C; Davley J; Baune D; Kjaer K; Gornik M et al. Residential substance abuse treatment programming: What do the inmates think? IN: Sims B, ed. Substance Abuse Treatment with Correctional Clients: Practical Implications for Institutional and Community Settings. Binghamton NY: Haworth Press, 2005. pp. 95-131. (83 refs.)

Therapeutic communities have been introduced into a number of correctional settings. This chapter reports research derived from the Residential Substance Abuse Treament (RSAT) conducted by the South Idaho Correctional Insitution, based on a therapeutic community model. The focus of discussion is perceptions of the participating inmates/clients. Included in the weaknesses cited were the presence of people who retaliate against others, the presence of petty rules, poor cognitive-self-change instructors, and the the program's location in a prison. The strengths reported were NA and AA meetings, feeling of fellowship among residents, support system, and general atmosphere. (Note: the sample was small, 42 people.] The conclusion is that a therapeutic community can be initiated successfully. Issues requiring further research are noted.

Stoller KB; Bigelow GE. Introduction and historical overview. IN: Strain EC; Stitzer ML, eds. The Treatment of Opioid Dependence. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006. pp. 3-17. (12 refs.)

The chapter begins with an overview of the opiate abuse prior to the advent of methadone, with attention to opioid use in the last half of the 1800s, the role of the physician prescription and patent medicines in the origins of opiate abuse/dependence. Lawmark legislative efforts to reduce opiate addiction are highlighted including the Harrison's Narcotics Act and the creation of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics. The transition from a punitive model to a medical perspective is described, marked by the introduction of the methadone. The most commonly used medication for the treatment of opioid has been methadone, indeed, until very recently, it was the only one. This chapter reviews the development of methadone for the treatment of opioid dependence. it also covers the more recent history in the development of alternative medications.

Strote J; Hutson HR. Taser use in restraint-related deaths. Prehospital Emergency Care 10(4): 447-450, 2006. (20 refs.)

Objective. The Taser is an electric weapon capable of releasing significant amounts of electricity in rapid pulses, causing uncontrollable muscle contraction. Use of this weapon has dramatically increased over the past decade, and it is now commonly used by law enforcement officers nationwide. Emergency medical services providers are, likewise, seeing more patients who have recently been subjected to application of a Taser. We examined the autopsy reports of patients who died after application of a Taser in an attempt to identify high-risk interactions. Methods. This is a case series of Taser-related deaths. Fatalities occurring over four years beginning in January 2001 were identified through an Internet search, and autopsy reports were requested. Reports were analyzed for patient demographics, preexisting cardiac disease, toxicology, evidence of excited delirium, restraint techniques used, and listed cause of death. Results. Of 75 cases identified, 37 (49.3%) had autopsy reports available for review. All cases involved men, with ages ranging from 18 to 50 years. Cardiovascular disease was found in 54.1%. Illegal substance use was found on toxicology screening for 78.4%; within that group, 86.2% were found to have been using stimulants. A diagnosis of excited delirium was given for 75.7% of the cases. Use of a Taser was considered a potential or contributory cause of death in 27%. Conclusions. This is the largest review of Taser-related fatalities reported in the medical literature. The findings are consistent with prior studies, suggesting a high frequency of restraint-related and excited delirium - related fatalities.

Taxman FS; Young DW; Wiersema B; Rhodes A; Mitchell S. The National Criminal Justice Treatment Practices survey: Multilevel survey methods and procedures. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 32(3): 225-238, 2007. (87 refs.)

The National Criminal Justice Treatment Practices (NCJTP) survey provides a comprehensive inquiry into the nature of programs and services provided to adult and juvenile offenders involved in the justice system in the United States. The multilevel survey design covers topics such as the mission and goals of correctional and treatment programs; organizational climate and culture for providing services; organizational capacity and needs; opinions of administrators and staff regarding rehabilitation, punishment, and services provided to offenders; treatment policies and procedures; and working relationships between correctional and other agencies. The methodology generates national estimates of the availability of programs and services for offenders. This article details the methodology and sampling frame for the NCJTP survey, response rates, and survey procedures. Prevalence estimates of juvenile and adult offenders under correctional control are provided with extemally validated comparisons to illustrate the veracity of the methodology. Limitations of the survey methods are also discussed.

Tolou-Shams M; Brown LK; Gordon G; Fernandez I; Project SHIELD Study Group. Arrest history as an indicator of adolescent/young adult substance use and HIV risk. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 88(1): 87-90, 2007. (15 refs.)

Juvenile offenders are particularly at risk for HIV because of their substantially high rates of risk behaviors, high rates of substance use disorders and psychopathology. Most studies have focused on risk behaviors among incarcerated youth. This study sought to determine if an arrest history could serve as a marker for HIV risk and substance abuse among a community-based sample of high-risk adolescents and young adults. Adolescents (N = 1400; mean age = IS years) who participated in a larger multi-site HIV prevention program in three states (GA, FL and RI) provided baseline data on sexual risk, substance use, attitudes and mental health history. Participants were grouped as arrestees (N = 404) and non-arrestees (N = 996) based on self-reported arrest history. Juvenile arrestees reported more alcohol and drug use, substance use during sex, unprotected sex acts, STI diagnoses, suicide attempts and psychiatric hospitalizations than non-arrestees. Having an arrest history may serve as a marker for adolescent HIV risk and substance abuse. Effectively screening adolescents for legal history and responding to the psychosocial and health needs of these high-risk adolescents could increase necessary engagement in substance use and mental health treatment, reduce HIV risk in the community, and reduce costs to the legal, medical and mental health systems.

Walker R; Logan TK. Setting the stage for treating drug court clients: How to initiate treatment. IN: Sims B, ed. Substance Abuse Treatment with Correctional Clients: Practical Implications for Institutional and Community Settings. Binghamton NY: Haworth Press, 2005. pp. 151-173. (37 refs.)

The goal of this chapter is to provide counselors with guidance on haw to begin substance abuse treatment with drug court clients. It begins with an overview of the key components of drug courts. It then continues by outlining important points of views about the relationship between crime and substance abuse. It then turns to consider the counselor-client relationship. It addresses the importance of establishing clear communications in relationships with clients, counselors and the courts. It also offers recommendations for appropriate methods of communicating to the court about client progress. It concludes with special considerations related to culture, gender and ethnicity.

Weitzel JA; Nochajski TH; Coffey SF; Farrell MG. Mental health among suburban drug court participants. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 33(3): 475-481, 2007. (18 refs.)

The issue of co-occurring disorders is of concern to the Criminal Justice field, including drug courts. To assess the potential co-occurrence of substance use- and mental health-related diagnoses, the Psychiatric Diagnostic Screening Questionnaire and similar instruments was administered to suburban drug court clients. Based on the screening, one quarter to one half of the 108 participants would be referred for follow-up for a mental health issue; women would be referred at a greater rate than men. There is a need to develop appropriate, brief mental health screening instruments for use in drug court settings so that clients can receive necessary services.

White MD; Goldkamp JS; Campbell SP. Co-occurring mental illness and substance abuse in the criminal justice system: Some implications for local jurisdictions. Prison Journal 86(3): 301-326, 2006. (72 refs.)

The increasing role of police, courts, and corrections in dealing with the mentally ill represents a significant challenge facing local justice systems. This article considers the impact of mentally ill and substance-abusing offenders in Santa Fe, New Mexico, by comparing a random sample of individuals detained on protective custody and mental health holds (n = 338) to a random sample of defendants arrested on criminal charges (n = 153). Results indicate that police encounter individuals with co-occurring disorders on a daily basis and that individuals detained on holds are much more likely than are those arrested to generate additional police contacts during a 1-year follow-up period. Individuals with co-occurring disorders also represent a serious financial burden on the local system, particularly in terms of confinement costs. The article concludes with a discussion of implications for criminal justice policy and practice.

Young DW; Dembo R; Henderson CE. A national survey of substance abuse treatment for juvenile offenders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 32(3): 255-266, 2007. (61 refs.)

Despite consensus about the value of substance abuse treatment for delinquent youth, information about its prevalence and availability is inadequate and inconsistent. This article presents findings about treatment and other correctional service provision from a national survey of directors of 141 juvenile institutional and community corrections (CC) facilities. Educational/General Educational Development programming and drug and alcohol education were the most prevalent types of correctional and substance abuse services. Other common services included physical health services and mental health assessment, provided to about 60% of youth across facilities, and mental health counseling, life and communication skills, and anger management, provided to about half of the youth. Substance abuse treatment, as with most other services, were more prevalent in large, state-funded residential facilities (where 66% provided treatment) than in local detention centers (20%) and CC facilities (56%). More detailed data showed that the number of youth attending treatment in all types of facilities on any given day was very low.