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CORK Bibliography: Contaminants and Adulterants

63 citations. 2003 to present

Prepared: March 2008

Akhter R; Hassan NMM; Aida J; Takinami S; Morita M. Relationship between betel quid additives and established periodontitis among Bangladeshi subjects. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 35(1): 9-15, 2008. (36 refs.)

Aim: To determine the relationship between betel quid chewing additives and established periodontitis in Bangladeshi subjects. Material and Methods: A total of 864 subjects participated in this study. Among them, 140 pairs of sex- and age-matched case subjects and control subjects were selected. A case was defined as a person who had at least two sites with a clinical attachment level (CAL)>= 6 mm and at least one site with probing depth (PD)>= 5 mm. Subjects who did not fulfill these criteria were considered as controls. Information on sociodemographic variables, psychological stress, dental health behaviour, smoking and betel quid chewing habits was obtained. Results: Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that current betel quid chewers had greater probabilities of having established periodontal disease than did non-chewers (odds ratio=3.97, p < 0.05). Mean PD, mean CAL, mean percentage of bleeding on probing and number of missing teeth were significantly higher in chewers of betel quid with tobacco and masala than in chewers of betel quid without such additives adjusting for age, sex, smoking habit, body mass index, dental visit pattern, stress and plaque index. Higher frequency and longer duration of betel quid chewing showed a significant relation to an increase in periodontal parameters. Conclusions: The results indicate that betel quid additives might significantly enhance periodontitis in the population studied.

Bernardo NP; Siqueira MEPB; de Paiva MJN; Maia PP. Caffeine and other adulterants in seizures of street cocaine in Brazil. International Journal of Drug Policy 14(4): 331-334, 2003. (18 refs.)

Cocaine sold as a "street drug" in white powder usually contains several adulterants and diluents. The purpose of this research was to quantify cocaine content and to check the presence of adulterants in illicit samples seized by the Narcotic and Toxic Substances Regional Department of Alfenas and Varginha districts, Brazil, in the year 2001. The identification of cocaine and adulterants in 209 samples, was screened by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and confirmed/quantified by gas chromatography/flame ionization detector (GC/FID). The pharmacologically inactive adulterants (starch, carbonates/bicarbonates and sugars) were analysed by qualitative tests or TLC. 88.9% of the samples analysed gave positive results for cocaine in concentrations between 4.3 and 87.1% of the powder. Active compounds detected were caffeine (50.2% of the samples, in concentrations ranging from 2.8 to 63.3% of the powder), lidocaine (65% of the samples, concentrations ranging 0.5?x2013;92%), and prilocaine (11% of the samples, concentrations ranging 1.4?x2013;20.7%). Carbonate/bicarbonate showed positive results in 41.2%, starch in 51.2% and sugars in 9.6% of the samples. The presence of other substances in cocaine street samples is worrying because they could modify or intensify signs and symptoms of the intoxication, acute or fatal, due to drug.

Bernhard D; Rossmann A; Wick G. Metals in cigarette smoke. (review). IUBMB Life 57(12): 805-809, 2005. (46 refs.)

Metals are vital for a huge number of physiological processes in the human body, but can also destroy health when the concentration is not within the physiologically favourable range. Cigarette smoking interferes with the carefully controlled metal homeostasis of the human body. This review focuses on the consequences of metal delivery to the human body by cigarette smoking and discusses the body's responses. The metal content of tobacco plants, smoke, the circulation, and various organs is discussed. Finally, we link individual cigarette smoke contained metals to the genesis of human diseases.

Cairns T; Hill V; Schaffer M; Thistle W. Removing and identifying drug contamination in the analysis of human hair. Forensic Science International 145(2/3): 97-108, 2004. (12 refs.)

The procedure used in this laboratory for removing and identifying contamination of hair specimens with drugs is demonstrated by its application to hair contaminated by various experimental models. The models include soaking; coating with drug followed by sweat conditions for 6 h; and soaking in a very high concentration of cocaine followed by storage and multiple shampoo treatments. A multi-part wash procedure along with a wash criterion is applied to all samples containing drug above the cutoff. The failure of the wash criterion is a signal that the sample may be positive due to contamination rather than use, and in the absence of other over-riding evidence, the sample would be considered to be negative for drug use. This Wash Criterion has also been tested with hair from subjects demonstrated to be drug users by one or more drug-positive urines; in these studies, all hair samples from demonstrated users passed the Wash Criterion test.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Hoffman RS; Nelson LS; Chan GM; Halcomb SE; Bouchard NC; Ginsburg BY et al. Atypical reactions associated with heroin use -- Five States, January-April 2005. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 54(32): 793-796, 2005. (9 refs.)

Heroin use typically produces a well-recognized syndrome of euphoria, miosis, and respiratory and central nervous system depression; cardiovascular effects are not a common finding. In January 2005, a man aged 21 years in New Jersey was hospitalized with an atypical reaction (e.g., tachycardia and palpitations) after reported heroin use. During the next 3 months, 25 additional persons in five states were reported to poison control centers (PCCs) and local public health agencies with a similar reaction after reported heroin use; in all, 24 of 26 patients were hospitalized. This report describes four representative cases and summarizes the investigation by state and local health and law enforcement authorities and CDC into the 26 cases of atypical reactions after heroin use reported in five states. Clenbuterol is a b2 adrenergic receptor agonist with a rapid onset and long duration of action approved for limited veterinary use in the United States (2,3). Clenbuterol is also used illicitly as an alternative to anabolic steroids in humans and livestock because it can increase muscle mass (4,5). Most adverse health effects are related to its stimulation of b2 adrenergic receptors and clinical manifestations, including hypokalemia, hyperglycemia, hyperlactemia, agitation, tachycardia, and hypotension (6). Adverse human health effects have been reported previously in a case of clenbuterol ingestion (7) and from ingestion of meat from livestock fed clenbuterol (3). However, the 26 cases described in this report are the first published accounts of poisoning from clenbuterol associated with reported heroin use. Whether these cases represent adulteration of a single source of heroin before widespread distribution or adulteration of multiple sources is unknown. Also unclear is whether the substance used by each patient was heroin contaminated with clenbuterol or pure clenbuterol sold as heroin. The presence of adulterants in heroin is not uncommon.

Public Domain

Chapman S. "Keep a low profile": Pesticide residue, additives, and freon use in Australian tobacco manufacturing. Tobacco Control 12(Supplement 3): 45-53, 2003. (90 refs.)

Objectives: To review the Australian tobacco industry's knowledge of pesticide residue on Australian tobacco and its policies and practices on resisting calls by tobacco control advocates that consumers should be informed about pesticide residue as well as additives. Methods: Review of previously internal industry documents relevant to pesticides and additives in Australian tobacco located from the Master Settlement Agreement websites. Results: Between 1972 and 1994 Philip Morris Australia was aware that its leaf samples were often contaminated with pesticide residue, sometimes including organochlorine levels described by PM's European laboratories as being "extremely high". Consumers were not advised of the contamination nor products withdrawn. From 1981, the industry also resisted calls to declare fully the extent of use and long term safety data on all additives used in their products. They developed standard public responses that were evasive and misleading and, in 2000, implemented voluntary additive disclosure which allowed the companies to continue to avoid disclosure of any ingredient they deemed to be a trade secret. There was extensive use of ozone depleting freon in Australian tobacco manufacturing. Again, the industry kept this information away from consumers. Conclusions: Australian smokers are unable to make informed decisions about smoking because pesticide and additive disclosure remains voluntary. The Australian government should regulate tobacco to require full disclosure including information on the likely health consequences of inhaling pesticide and additive pyrolysis products.

Cheng JYK; Chan MF; Chan TW; Hung MY. Impurity profiling of ecstasy tablets seized in Hong Kong by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Forensic Science International 162(1/3): 87-94, 2006. (16 refs.)

In Hong Kong, ecstasy tablets are more commonly known as "Fing Tau Yuen", literally meaning "Shake Head Pills". The tablets contain mainly amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) including 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), methamphetamine (MA) and/or ketamine. Adulterant such as caffeine was also detected in the tablets. This paper reports a study on the impurity profiles of ecstasy tablets from 89 seizures in Hong Kong from 2002 to early 2004. Tablet samples were extracted by diethyl ether under alkaline condition and then analyzed by gas GC-MS. The chromatograms obtained were compared. A total of 19 identified impurities were selected as markers for impurity profiling. They are different precursors, intermediates and by-products. The data matrices were examined by hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), and then the ecstasy tablets were classified into different groups. Cluster analysis of ecstasy tablets is shown to be capable of providing intelligence on clandestine laboratory networks.

Cheng WC; Poon NL; Chan MF. Chemical profiling of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) tablets seized in Hong Kong. Journal of Forensic Sciences 48(6): 1249-1259, 2003. (31 refs.)

During 2000-2001, the Government Laboratory of Hong Kong received over 600,000 ecstasy tablets in more than 2,600 cases. Using GC-MS or FTIR, the major amphetamine-type stimulants were identified, and the samples were categorized into four groups containing: (1) 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), (2) methamphetamine (MA), (3) 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), or (4) amphetamine. Our study revealed that in Hong Kong MDMA tablets have made up 98 and 71% of the total ecstasy tablets examined in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Among the MDMA cases, 613 cases involving a total of 123,776 tablets in 2001 were randomly selected, and their active ingredients, minor ingredients. and/or impurities were studied using GC-MS and HPLC. Based on the chemical profiles, and irrespective of their different physical characteristics. tablets obtained in different seizures could be determined as to whether or not they could have come from a common origin. The impurities detected in the MDMA tablets also served as excellent chemical markers from which plausible synthetic route(s) of the MDMA were inferred. Our study revealed that 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone (MDP2P), 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanol (MDP), 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylbenzylamine (MDB), piperonal and N-formyl-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (N-formyl-MDMA) were the most common impurities detected in MDMA tablets seized in Hong Kong. The finding of the phosphate salt of MDMA is intriguing. Based on a presumptive color test, spectroscopic data (FTIR/ESI-MS) and the percentage of MDMA content in a purified phosphate salt of MDMA, the ratio of the phosphate to MDMA was determined to be 1: 1, suggesting that the compound is a dihydrogen phosphate salt [i.e. (HMDMA)H2PO4].

Dayrit FA; Dumlao MC. Impurity profiling of methamphetamine hydrochloride drugs seized in the Philippines. Forensic Science International 144(1): 29-36, 2004. (9 refs.)

Methaniphetamine hydrochloride is one of the most widely used illicit drugs in the Philippines. In this study, we describe the application of cluster analysis of trace impurities in the profiling of the seized methamphetamine drug samples. Thirty milligrams of a homogenized drug sample were dissolved in I mL of pH 10.5 buffer solution and extracted with ethyl acetate containing three internal standards. The trace impurities were identified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and quantified by gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID). Following previously reported methodologies, 30 impurity peaks were selected from the GC-FID chromatograms. The peak areas and retention times were referenced to the internal standards. The peak areas of the selected peaks were then grouped for cluster analysis. In order to check for consistency of clustering, two further cluster analyses were performed using 40 and 50 impurity peaks. Changes in clustering were observed in going from 30 to 40 impurity peaks, while analyses using 40 and 50 impurity peaks gave similar results. Thus, for the seized drug samples used in this study, cluster analysis using at least 40 impurity peaks showed better consistency of clustering as compared to analysis using 30 peaks only. Ten of the impurity peaks were identified, of which four were identified for the first time in methamphetamine drug samples. These are p-bromotoulene, N-benzyl amphetamine, N-ethyl amphetamine, and N-ethyl methamphetamine. The presence of phenyl-2-propanone (P2P), N,N-dimethyl amphetamine, and N-formyl amphetamine is indicative that these casework samples were synthesized using the Leuckart method.

De Wet C; Reed L; Bearn J. Occult benzodiazepine dependence. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice 8(4): 265-266, 2004. (5 refs.)

Illicit street heroin is often adulterated with other substances, which may expose the unknowing user to additional adverse risks. This case study describes an intravenous heroin user with a history of epileptic seizures, who presented with unexpected benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms. It highlights the importance of a thorough drug history with corroborative urine drug testing.

del Giudice P. Cutaneous complications of intravenous drug abuse. (review). British Journal of Dermatology 150(1): 1-10, 2004. (128 refs.)

Injection drug abuse is a world-wide problem responsible for numerous minor to life-threatening and fatal complications. The skin is the tissue most evidently affected by intravenous drug addiction. A wide spectrum of cutaneous complications may occur in intravenous drug users. These include acute or delayed local complications, hypersensitivity reactions, cutaneous manifestations of systemic infections or becoming the site of toxigenic infections. Between 1996 and 2001, in our institution in south-eastern France, we observed cutaneous complications after crushed buprenorphine tablet injections in 13 patients. This paper reviews and classifies adverse effects of parenteral drug abuse on the skin.

Dietze P; Miller S; Clemens S; Matthews S; Gilmour S; Collins L. The Course and Consequences of the Heroin Shortage in Victoria. NDARC Technical Report No. 206. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, 2004. (56 refs.)

Executive Summary. Heroin and related harms increased dramatically in Victoria in the late 1990s. In late 2000/early 2001, reports suggested a dramatic decline in the supply of heroin, a phenomenon commonly termed the "heroin drought." This was accompanied by media reports of changes in heroin use and associated harms such as overdose. This prompted research efforts by the National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund. Among the key findings were that indeed there was a dramatic decrease in December 2000-January 2001. In terms of the characteristics and immediate effects of the shortage -- there were decreases in the purity of heroin; reported declines in ease of access and an accompanying increase in price; there was a 61% decline in opioid hospitalizations in Victoria; a decline in the treatment occasions provided for specialized drug services; and an increase in robbery incidents reported to police. Nonetheless, the overall extent of intravenous drug use was little changed, although amphetamine, benzodiazepine, prescribed opioid and cannabis use increased among intravenous drug uses. An accompanying result was that the general health of intravenous drug users declined; there was an increase in mental health problems, especially associated with stimulant use; and an increase in the prevalence of injection-related problems among intravenous users as well as increase in injection practices associated with infection. There was also an impact upon police with a decline in resources devoted to heroin policing, an improvement in linkages between health and law enforcement agencies. Following an Executive Summary and Introduction this report has ten major sections. They outline the history of the heroin market, changes in drug use among injecting drug users; description of the heroin shortage; changes in health effects of drug use; resulting changes in drug treatment patterns; changes in drug related crime; changes that resulted for health and law enforcement officials; and the impression of key informants.

Ding YS; Trommel JS; Yan XZJ; Ashley D; Watson CH. Determination of 14 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in mainstream smoke from domestic cigarettes. Environmental Science & Technology 39(2): 471-478, 2005. (24 refs.)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of environmental pollutants created primarily from incomplete combustion of various organic materials including tobacco. Cigarette smoke is a complex mixture of various classes of compounds, including numerous PAHs, in both the mainstream and the sidestrearn smoke fractions. We measured the levels of 14 PAHs in mainstream smoke from unfiltered custom cigarettes made from individual tobacco types and 30 brands of domestic blended cigarettes using standardized smoking conditions, extraction from the Cambridge filter pads, and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Differences in smoke PAHs from cigarettes with selected tobacco blends were identified and illustrate how blend composition contributes to the overall mainstream smoke PAH profile. The PAH levels varied among the different commercial cigarette brands, with the amount of total mainstream smoke PAHs ranging from 1 to 1.6 mug per cigarette. Under machine smoking conditions, the mainstream smoke from domestic cigarettes had individual PAHs ranging from benzo[k]fluoranthene at levels below 10 ng/cigarette to naphthalene at levels of around 500 ng/cigarette. Low delivery cigarettes smoked with blocked filter vent holes dramatically increased the mainstream smoke PAH deliveries with respect to their unblocked counterparts. Inhalation of PAHs and other harmful chemicals from cigarette smoke are unique as they represent a routine voluntary exposure to common environmental pollutants.

Exley C; Ahmed U; Polwart A; Bloor RN. Elevated urinary aluminium in current and past users of illicit heroin. Addiction Biology 12(2): 197-199, 2007. (12 refs.)

The use of illicit heroin is associated with aberrant neurology of unknown aetiology and various psychiatric illnesses. Aluminium, which is a proven neurotoxin, is present in significant amounts in illicit heroin and may also be volatilized and inhaled following the vaporization of heroin off aluminium foil ('Chasing the Dragon'). The purpose of this study was to establish if the use of illicit heroin was associated with an increase in the body burden of aluminium. We have used graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry to measure the aluminium and iron contents of the urine of current and past users of illicit heroin and used these data to estimate body burdens of aluminium. Urinary excretion of aluminium is the most effective non-invasive indicator of the body burden of aluminium and was found to be significantly (P < 0.001) higher in users of illicit heroin, range 14-3382 nmol/mmol creatinine (mean +/- SD; 222 +/- 491 nmol/mmol creatinine), than in a normal non-drug abusing control population, range 23-74 nmol/mmol creatinine (mean +/- SD; 43 +/- 19 nmol/mmol creatinine). Exposure to aluminium from the use of illicit heroin may be of particular significance because the urinary excretion of iron, another major contaminant of illicit heroin, in users (mean +/- SD; 53 +/- 63 nmol/mmol creatinine) was not significantly different (P > 0.05) from the control population (mean +/- SD; 38 +/- 18 nmol/mmol creatinine). We have shown for the first time that the use of illicit heroin may be a significant contributor to the body burden of aluminium. Further research will be required to determine if adventitious aluminium has a role in heroin use-related neuropathology and neurology.

Exley C; Begum A; Woolley MP; Bloor RN. Aluminum in tobacco and cannabis and smoking-related disease. American Journal of Medicine 119(3), 2006. (15 refs.)

PURPOSE: The study aimed to confirm the very high content of aluminum in tobacco and cannabis and to provide for the first time evidence that such aluminum could be biologically available. METHODS: Complete digestion of tobacco and cannabis was achieved using a 50:50 mixture of 14 M HNO3 and 0.1 M NaF. Total A1 in digests was measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. A bespoke cigarette smoking apparatus was used to determine if aluminum in active or passive tobacco/cannabis smoke would be trapped by a surrogate lung fluid. RESULTS: The aluminum content of tobacco and cannabis was confirmed to be high, as much as 0.37% and 0.4% by weight respectively. Aluminum in tobacco and cannabis smoke, whether actively (drawn) or passively inhaled, was shown to accumulate significantly in surrogate lung fluids, thus demonstrating its potential biological availability. CONCLUSIONS: Active and passive smoking of tobacco or cannabis will increase the body burden of aluminum and thereby contribute to respiratory, neurological and other smoking-related disease.

Friesen MS; Purssell RA; Gair RD. Aluminum toxicity following IV use of oral methadone solution. (review). Clinical Toxicology 44(3): 307-314, 2006. (107 refs.)

Background. Aluminum toxicity has been reported in renal failure patients exposed to aluminum-contaminated dialysate and oral phosphate binders. We report a case of significant aluminum toxicity in a non-hemodialysis patient. Case report. A 43-year-old male IV drug user presented to the hospital with a seizure disorder of recent onset, progressive cognitive decline, ataxia, and dysarthria. The serum aluminum concentration was 180 micrograms/L (6.65 micromol/L). For 3 to 4 years prior, the patient had injected 'cooked' oral methadone. The methadone solution was heated in an aluminum pot to reduce the volume and then injected intravenously (IV). He was treated with IV deferoxamine over 9 months until he failed to return. Serum aluminum level after 9 months of treatment was 64.5 microgram/L (2.39 micromol/L). Neurological symptoms were partially improved. Conclusion. Chronic IV injection of oral methadone solution heated in an aluminum-based cooking utensil may result in significant aluminum toxicity.

Gahlinger PM. Club drugs: MDMA, gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), rohypnol, and ketamine. American Family Physician 69(11): 2619-2626, 2004. (59 refs.)

Club drugs are substances commonly used at nightclubs, music festivals, raves, and dance parties to enhance social intimacy and sensory stimulation. The most widely used club drugs are 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), also known as ecstasy; gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB); flunitrazepam (Rohypnol); and ketamine (Ketalar). These drugs are popular because of their low cost and convenient distribution as small pills, powders, or liquids. Club drugs usually are taken orally and may be taken in combination with each other, with alcohol, or with other drugs. Club drugs often are adulterated or misrepresented. Any club drug overdose should therefore be suspected as polydrug use with the actual substance and dose unknown. Persons who have adverse reactions to these club drugs are likely to consult a family physician. Toxicologic screening generally is not available for club drugs. The primary management is supportive care, with symptomatic control of excess central nervous system stimulation or depression. There are no specific antidotes except for flunitrazepam, a benzodiazepine that responds to flumazenil. Special care must be taken for immediate control of hyperthermia, hypertension, rhabdomyolysis, and serotonin syndrome. Severe drug reactions can occur even with a small dose and may require critical care. Club drug overdose usually resolves with full recovery within seven hours. Education of the patient and family is essential.

Givel M. A comparison of US and Norwegian regulation of coumarin in tobacco products. Tobacco Control 12(4): 401-405, 2003. (37 refs.)

Objective: This paper examines policy processes regarding why the USA and Norway have not regulated coumarin in tobacco. Design: A qualitative analysis of all tobacco industry documents regarding coumarin since the 1950s from the 1998 US Master Settlement Agreement and subsequent legal settlements. Additional data were collected from newspaper reports, general internet search engines, journal articles, scholarly reports, court cases, statutes, regulations, and informal correspondence with tobacco control experts in Norway. Main outcome measure: An overview, summary, and analysis of all documents related to coumarin. Results: In the USA from 1954 until 1985 when coumarin was reportedly removed from domestic cigarettes, but not from pipe tobacco until 1996, and not at all from imported Indian bidi cigarettes, regulatory efforts were stymied. In Norway, from 1973 to the present, the tobacco industry has never disclosed whether its tobacco products contain coumarin. In both the USA and Norway, the extreme delay and lack of vigorous evidence gathering and significant remedies were caused by tobacco industry assertions that revealing tobacco additives was a violation of trade secrets, and by weak regulatory authority and efforts to regulate coumarin. Conclusion: Vigorous and expeditious regulatory investigations and remedies for harmful additives in tobacco, such as coumarin, can protect the public health. Astute insider and outsider political advocacy by health advocates is required to hold elected officials and civil servants publicly accountable for failing to enact disclosure laws and to engage in effective regulatory efforts.

Goldmann T; Taroni F; Margot P. Analysis of dyes in illicit pills (amphetamine and derivatives). Journal of Forensic Sciences 49(4): 716-722, 2004. (10 refs.)

The determination of dyes present in illicit pills is shown to be useful and easy-to-get information in strategic and tactical drug intelligence. An analytical strategy including solid-phase extraction (SPE) thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and capillary zone electrophoresis equipped with a diode array detector (CZE-DAD) was developed to identify and quantify 14 hydrosoluble, acidic, synthetic food dyes allowed in the European Community. Indeed, these may be the most susceptible dyes to be found in illicit pills through their availability and easiness of use. The results show (1) that this analytical method is well adapted to small samples such as illicit pills, (2) that most dyes actually found belong to hydrosoluble, acidic, synthetic food dyes allowed in the European Community, and (3) that this evidence turns out to be important in drug intelligence and may be assessed into a Bayesian framework.

Gordon RJ; Lowy FD. Current concepts: Bacterial infections in drug users. (review). New England Journal of Medicine 353(18): 1945-1954, 2005. (79 refs.)

There are an13 million injection-drug users worldwide, 78 percent of whom live in developing nations. Infections are among the most serious complications of drug use. Drug use plays a major role in the transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), sexually transmitted diseases, and viral hepatitis. In addition to these infections, drug users risk acquiring a diversity of bacterial infections. This review summarizes recent information on bacterial infections associated with drug use and examines the interactions among the drug user, the preferred drug, and the method of administration that define the nature of these infections. The bulk of these are caused by the users own commensal flora, with staph and streptococcus being the most common. Skin and soft-tissue infections are among the most common among injection drug users. The epidemiology is described, followed by discussion of pathogenesis; transmission through needle sharing, drugs, or their adulterants, drug preparation, and host susceptibility. Clinical features are presented -- for skin/soft-tissue, musculoskeletal, endovascular, respiratory tract infections -- with discussion of treatment and management.

Grant CN; Lalor GC; Vutchkov MK. Trace elements in Jamaican tobacco. West Indian Medical Journal 53(2): 66-70, 2004. (26 refs.)

The concentrations of 28 elements, in hand-made cigars, "rope" tobacco and freshly picked tobacco leaves from the parish of Manchester in central Jamaica, were compared with locally packaged and imported cigarettes and cigars. Except for chromium and vanadium, which are lower in the imported products, the elemental concentrations of all the brands sold in Jamaica are rather similar. The means for aluminium, cadmium, caesium, cerium, chromium, iron, thorium, uranium, vanadium and zinc for the Manchester material exceed the maximum values of the other tobaccos. The significant concentrations of heavy metals, and especially cadmium, which is about 50 times that of commercial cigarettes, reflect the known high concentrations in the soils in the region. This tobacco is not filtered and the smoke contains 50% of the cadmium. This, and the concentrations of radioactive elements, may indicate an additional health risk compared with commercial cigarettes. A study of three samples of marijuana indicates a similar level of risk from heavy metals.

Ha MS; Kwon KS; Kim M; Park HR; Hu SJ; Lee H et al. Exposure assessment of ethyl carbamate in alcoholic beverages. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 16(3): 480-483, 2006. (20 refs.)

Ethyl carbamate, a by-product produced naturally during fermentation and contained in fermented foods and beverages, is a carcinogen. Thus, due to the high consumption of alcoholic beverages in Korea, the ethyl carbamate concentrations in popular alcoholic beverages were determined, and the daily intake of ethyl carbamate through alcoholic beverages was estimated. The major Korean alcoholic beverages, Soju, beer, and Takju, with the highest market share were sampled and their ethyl carbamate concentrations determined by GC/MS/SIM. The ranges of ethyl carbamate contained in Soju, beer, and Takju was 0.83-10.07, 0.45-0.77, and 0.40-0.93 ppb, respectively. These results and data on the average daily intake of alcoholic beverages were then used to calculate the average and maximum estimated daily intakes (EDI) of ethyl carbamate through alcoholic beverages. As a result, a relatively high EDI of ethyl carbamate through alcoholic beverages was found for Korean males over 30 years old, indicating the need to reduce the ethyl carbamate content in alcoholic beverages.

Hatsukami DK; Ebbert JO; Anderson A; Lin H; Le C; Hecht SS. Smokeless tobacco brand switching: A means to reduce toxicant exposure? Drug and Alcohol Dependence 87(2/3): 217-224, 2007. (40 refs.)

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of smokeless tobacco (ST) brand switching on biomarkers of ST exposure and on ST use. Subjects seeking treatment to reduce their use were randomized to ST brand switching with controlled ST topography, brand switching with ad libitum ST use, or a waitlist control with subsequent randomization to one of these two conditions. The waitlist control group was included to assess whether changes were a consequence of time effect. During the intervention, Copenhagen or Kodiak ST users were asked to switch to products that were sequentially lower in nicotine content: Skoal Long Cut Straight or Wintergreen for 4 weeks and then Skoal Bandits for the subsequent 4 weeks. Measures were obtained during the course of treatment and at 12-week follow-up. Significant reductions in total urinary cotinine and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-L-(3-pyridyl)-L-butanol (NNAL) plus its glucuronides (total NNAL) were observed with no significant differences between the controlled topography and ad libitum conditions. Significant reductions were also observed in the amount and duration of dips with a significant intervention effect for durational measures. At 12 weeks, the 7-day biochemically-verified tobacco abstinent rate was 26% in the ad libitum group. ST brand switching may be a feasible alternative intervention for ST users interested in quitting but unwilling to Stop ST use completely.

Henningfield JE; Pankow JF; Garrett BE. Ammonia and other chemical base tobacco additives and cigarette nicotine delivery: Issues and research needs. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 6(2): 199-205, 2004. (34 refs.)

In 1994 the US cigarette makers disclosed a list of approximately 600 ingredients that are added to smoking tobacco. In its proposed Tobacco Rule of 1995, the Food and Drug Agency concluded that ammonia compounds were used to enhance nicotine delivery and absorption, to serve as an "impact booster," a charge denied by the tobacco industry. which has continued. This Commentary summarizes the core issues considered by the FDA in its investigation of the science underlying the use of ammonia, and provides a brief summary of the current focal points of the ammonia/base debate, and raises specific research questions and challenges of potential interests to nicotine and tobacco researchers. This commentary was developed following a workshop convened by the US Office on Smoking and Health in 2001.

Hoffman RS; Nelson LS; Chan GM; Halcomb SE; Bouchard NC; Ginsburg BY et al. Atypical reactions associated with heroin use: Five states, January-April 2005 (Reprinted from MMWR, vol 54, pg 793-796, 2005). Journal of the American Medical Association 294(19): 2424+, 2005. (1 refs.)

Public Domain

Hong KP; Kang YS; Jung DC; Park SR; Yoon JH; Lee SY et al. Exposure to ethyl carbamate by consumption of alcoholic beverages imported in Korea. Food Science and Biotechnology 16(6): 975-980, 2007. (41 refs.)

Determination of ethyl carbamyate content in imported alcoholic beverages in Korea and an exposure assessment were conducted. In gas chromatography/mass spectrometry/selected ion monitoring (GC/MS/SIM) analysis, 2.5-39, 8-263, 6.3-112, 11.3-23.5, 53-94, 8.5-38.5, 7-9.5, 21.3-31.5, 5-832.5, and 10.5-364.8 mu g/L of ethyl carbamate were detected in imported beers, sakes, whiskies, vodkas, Chinese liquors, cognacs, tequilas, rums, liqueurs, and wines, respectively. The exposure assessment indicated that the exposure of Korean adults to ethyl carbamate were lower than 20 ng/kg BW per day, (the virtual safe dose) indicating that the amount of ethyl carbamate exposed through fermented food and alcoholic beverages including imported products are currently in the 'no significant risk level'. However, the present low exposure to ethyl carbamate through the imported alcoholic products was not due to the low contents of ethyl carbamate in imported products, but low consumption of the imported products. Therefore, given increasing importation of alcoholic beverages in Korea, reductions of ethyl carbamate content in imported alcoholic beverages, especially non-distilled products, should be required by regulating limits on the ethyl carbamate content in the imported alcoholic beverages.

Jablonski J; Jablonska E; Moniuszko-Jakoniuk J. Pentobarbital in tobacco. Food and Chemical Toxicology 44(11): 1948-1951, 2006. (12 refs.)

The spectrometric analysis of extracts from tobacco and tobacco smoke revealed the presence of pentobarbital in the analyzed substances. Tobacco samples and tobacco smoke were extracted with chloroform, determinations were performed with the Perkin-Elmer Autosystem XL system, on a Turbo Mass spectrometer. Subject to analysis were 4 cigarette brands manufactured in Poland and raw, unprocessed tobacco. The presence of pentobarbital in the analyzed samples was confirmed by the analysis of the mass spectrum of the substance, as well as by comparison of retention time with standard of pentobarbital. The determined pentobarbital concentrations in tobacco amounted to 3-6 mu g/cigarette, and in tobacco smoke they were approximately 45% lower. In case of tobacco extracts it can with high probability be excluded that pentobarbital is synthesized during chromatographical analysis. The presence of pentobarbital in tobacco is thus beyond question.

Johnston J; Barratt MJ; Fry CL; Kinner S; Stoove M; Degenhardt L et al. A survey of regular ecstasy users' knowledge and practices around determining pill content and purity: Implications for policy and practice. International Journal of Drug Policy 17(6): 464-472, 2006

Objective: To examine the methods used by a sample of regular ecstasy users to determine the content and purity of ecstasy pills, their knowledge of the limitations of available pill testing methods, and how pill test results would influence their drug use behaviour. Method: Data were collected from regular ecstasy users (n = 810) recruited from all eight capital cities of Australia. Data were analysed using multiple logistic regression and chi-square (_2) tests of association. Open-ended responses were coded for themes. Results: The majority of the sample (84%) reported attempting to find out the content and purity of ecstasy at least some of the time, most commonly asking friends or dealers. Less than one quarter (22%) reported personal use of testing kits. There was a moderate level of awareness of the limitations of testing kits among those who reported having used them. Over half (57%) of those reporting personal use of testing kits reported that they would not take a pill if test results indicated that it contained ketamine and over three quarters (76%) reported that they would not take an �unknown� pill (producing no reaction in a reagent test). Finally, a considerable majority (63%) expressed interest in pill testing should it be more widely available. Conclusions: The majority of regular ecstasy users sampled in this Australian study report previous attempts to determine the content and purity of pills sold as ecstasy. Although only a small proportion have used testing kits, many report that they would do so if they were more widely available. The results of pill tests may influence drug use if they indicate that pills contain substances which ecstasy users do not want to ingest or are of unknown content. More detailed research examining ways in which pill testing may influence drug use is required to inform evidence-based policy.

Kalasinsky KS; Hugel J; Kish SJ. Use of MDA (the "love drug") and methamphetamine in Toronto by unsuspecting users of ecstasy (MDMA). Journal of Forensic Sciences 49(5): 1106-1112, 2004. (36 refs.)

It has recently been reported that purity of illicit tablets of ecstasy (MDMA) is now high. Our objective was to confirm whether hair of drug users, who request only ecstasy from their supplier, contains MDMA in the absence of other drugs. GC-MS analysis of scalp hair segments disclosed the presence of MDMA in 19 of 21 subjects and amphetamine/methamphetamine in eight subjects. Surprisingly, seven subjects had hair levels of the MDMA metabolite, NIDA, equal to or greater than those of MDMA, suggesting use of MDA in addition to that of MDMA. These amphetamine derivatives might be included by clandestine laboratories to enhance effects of the drug cocktail or because of a perception that MDA synthesis might be simpler than that of MDMA. Drug users and investigators examining possible brain neurotoxic effects of MDMA need to consider that "ecstasy" tablets can contain MDA and methamphetamine despite no demand for the drugs.

Katainen E; Elomaa M; Laakkonen UM; Sippola E; Niemela P; Suhonen J et al. Quantification of the amphetamine content in seized street samples by Raman spectroscopy. Journal of Forensic Sciences 52(1): 88-92, 2007. (17 refs.)

A Raman spectroscopy method for determining the drug content of street samples of amphetamine was developed by dissolving samples in an acidic solution containing an internal standard (sodium dihydrogen phosphate). The Raman spectra of the samples were measured with a CDD-Raman spectrometer. Two Raman quantification methods were used: (1) relative peak heights of characteristic signals of the amphetamine and the internal standard; and (2) multivariate calibration by partial least squares (PLS) based on second derivative of the spectra. For the determination of the peak height ratio, the spectra were baseline corrected and the peak height ratio (h(amphetamine at 994 cm)(-1)/h(internal standard at 880 cm)(-1)) was calculated. For the PLS analysis, the wave number interval of 1300-630 cm(-1) (348 data points) was chosen. No manual baseline correction was performed, but the spectra were differentiated twice to obtain their second derivatives, which were further analyzed. The Raman results were well in line with validated reference LC results when the Raman samples were analyzed within 2 h after dissolution. The present results clearly show that Raman spectroscopy is a good tool for rapid (acquisition time 1 min) and accurate quantitative analysis of street samples that contain illicit drugs and unknown adulterants and impurities.

Kozlowski LT; O'Connor RJ; Giovino GA; Whetzel CA; Pauly J; Cummings KM. Maximum yields might improve public health - if filter vents were banned: A lesson from the history of vented filters. Tobacco Control 15(3): 262-266, 2006. (21 refs.)

Filter ventilation is the dominant design feature of the modern cigarette that determines yields of tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide on smoking machine tests. The commercial use of filter ventilation was precipitated by the 1964 United States Surgeon-General's report, further advanced by the adoption of an official Federal Trade Commission test in 1967, and still further advanced by the inclusion of a gas phase (carbon monoxide) measure in 1979. The first vented-filter brand on the market in the United States (Carlton) in 1964 and the second major vented-filter brand (True) in 1966 illustrate this. Ultimately, filter ventilation became a virtually required way to make very low tar cigarettes (less than 10 mg or, even more so, less than 5 mg tar). The key to the lower tar cigarette was not, in effect, the advanced selective filtration design characteristics or sophisticated tobacco selection or processing as envisioned by experts (although these techniques were and are used); the key to the very much lower tar cigarette was simply punching holes in the filter. We propose that the banning of filter vents, coupled with low maximum standard tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide yields, would contribute to making cigarettes much less palatable and foster smoking cessation or the use of clearly less hazardous nicotine delivery systems. It may be necessary to link low maximum yields with the banning of filter ventilation to achieve public health benefit from such maxima.

Lachenmeier DW; Walch SG; Padosch SA; Kroner LU. Absinthe: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 46(5): 365-377, 2006. (104 refs.)

The alcoholic beverage absinthe is recently experiencing a revival after a yearlong prohibition. This review article provides information on all aspects of this bitter spirit and its major components, especially wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L.), which contains the toxic monoterpene thujone. Over 100 references on historic and current literature are provided. The topics comprise the history of the alcoholic drink starting from its invention in the eighteenth century. Historical and modern recipes are discussed in the context of different quality categories and possibilities to reduce the content of thujone are given. The analytical techniques used to verify compliance with the maximum limit of thujone as well as further possibilities for quality control of absinthe are discussed. The toxicology of absinthe is reviewed with regard to the cause of a syndrome called "absinthism," which was described after chronic abuse of the spirit in the nineteenth century. Finally, a food regulatory and food chemical evaluation is provided and minimum requirements for absinthe are suggested. Absinthe should have a recognizable wormwood flavor and after dilution with water the characteristic clouding should arise (louche-effect). Products, which are advertized as being of premium grade should be made by distillation, should have an alcoholic strength of at least 45% vol, and should not contain artificial dye.

Lang K; Vali M; Szcs S; Adany R; McKee M. The composition of surrogate and illegal alcohol products in Estonia. Alcohol and Alcoholism 41(4): 446-450, 2006. (14 refs.)

Aim: To identify the composition of illegal and surrogate alcohol products consumed in Estonia. Methods: The initial source of information was a series of visits made in August 2005 to a soup kitchen in central Tartu, Estonia. Individuals were asked for brief details of their personal circumstances, what they normally drank, and in addition they were asked to bring samples of the substances they usually consumed. In other cases, the substances identified were purchased by the investigators or from informal contacts in north-eastern part of Estonia, an area that is well known for illegal alcohol consumption. Samples were tested for chemical contents. Results: We identified a range of alcohol-containing substances that are consumed, although, not intended for consumption. These comprised medicinal products, aftershaves, illegally produced spirits, and fire-lighting fuel. The medicinal compounds contained, on average, 67% ethanol by volume; the aftershaves contained slightly less. Both were typically pure, with a few containing detectable quantities of isoamyl alcohol. The illegally produced alcohol contained, on average, 43% ethanol by volume, ranging from 32 to 53%. However, many also contained detectable quantities of long chain alcohols. These substances are half the price or less of commercial vodka, with fire lighting fuels especially inexpensive. Conclusions: There is in Estonia a range of alcohol-containing substances easily available at low cost. Some contain substantially higher concentrations of ethanol than commercial spirits and others also contain toxic long chain alcohols.

Lee JS; Han EY; Lee SY; Kim EM; Park YH; Lim MA et al. Analysis of the impurities in the methamphetamine synthesized by three different methods from ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. Forensic Science International 161(2-3): 209-215, 2006. (24 refs.)

Organic impurities of methamphetamine may show different patterns by synthesis. In the present study, we tried to find the impurities reflecting the conditions of synthesis by comparing impurity patterns of the methamphetamine samples synthesized by different methods. Sixteen methamphetamine samples were synthesized from ephedrine and pseudoephedrine by the three different manufacturing methods of Emde, Nagai and Moscow. The synthesized samples were extracted with ethyl acetate containing four internal standards, and the patterns of the organic impurities were investigated by GC-MS and GC-FID. Through the investigation, we found 10 peaks appearing in the latter part of GC chromatograms are characteristic to synthesis. The areas of the selected peaks were converted to the variables suitable for the statistical calculation, and the synthesized samples could be classified into four groups through the resultant cluster analysis.

Leon DA; Saburova L; Tomkins S; Andreev E; Kiryanov N; Mckee M et al. Hazardous alcohol drinking and premature mortality in Russia: A population based case-control study. Lancet 369(9578): 2001-2009, 2007. (35 refs.)

Background: The reason for the low life expectancy in Russian men and large fluctuations in mortality are unknown. We investigated the contribution of alcohol, and hazardous drinking in particular, to male mortality in a typical Russian city. Methods: Cases were all deaths in men aged 25-54 years living in Izhevsk occurring between Oct 20, 2003, to Oct 3, 2005. Controls were selected at random from the city population and were frequency matched to deaths by age. Interviews with proxy informants living in the same household as cases were done between Dec 11, 2003, and Nov, 16 2005, and were obtained for 62% (1750/2835) of cases and 57% (1750/3078) of controls. We ascertained frequency and usual amount of beer, wine, and spirits consumed and frequency of consumption of manufactured ethanol-based liquids not intended to be drunk (non-beverage alcohol), and markers of problem drinking. Complete information on markers of problem drinking, frequency of alcohol consumption, education, and smoking was available for 1468 cases and 1496 controls. Findings: 751 (51%) cases were classed as problem drinkers or drank non-beverage alcohol, compared with 192 (13%) controls. The mortality odds ratio (OR) for these men, compared with those who either abstained or were non-problematic beverage drinkers, was 6.0 (95% CI 5.0-7-3) after adjustment for smoking and education. The mortality ORs for drinking non-beverage alcohol in the past year (yes vs no) was 9.2 (7.2-11.7) after adjustment for age. Adjustment for volume of ethanol consumed from beverages lowered the OR to 8.3 (6.5-10.7), and further adjustment for education and smoking reduced it to 7.0 (5.5-9.0). A strong direct gradient with mortality was seen for frequency of non-beverage alcohol drinking independent of volume of beverage ethanol consumed. 43% of mortality was attributable to hazardous drinking (problem drinking or non-beverage alcohol consumption, or both) adjusted for smoking and education. Interpretation Almost half of all deaths in working age men in a typical Russian city may be accounted for by hazardous drinking. Our analyses provide indirect support for the contention that the sharp fluctuations seen in Russian mortality in the early 1990s could be related to hazardous drinking as indicated by consumption of non-beverage alcohol.

Levy P; Hexdall A; Gordon P; Boeriu C; Heller M; Nelson L. Methanol contamination of Romanian home-distilled alcohol. Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology 41(1): 23-28, 2003. (41 refs.)

The authors discuss a study which characterized the methanol content of Tuica to understand the potential for epidemic methanol poisoning in Romania. It reviews the background on epidemic methanol poisoning from the consumption of illicitly manufactured alcohol, including the locations and cases of global epidemic methanol poisonings and the prevalence of clinical methanol toxicity in Romania

Loh CH; Chang YW; Liou SH; Chang JH; Chen HI. Case report: Hexachloroethane smoke inhalation: A rare cause of severe hepatic injuries. Environmental Health Perspectives 114(5): 763-765, 2006. (26 refs.)

Context: We report on two patients, a 23-year-old man and a 24-year-old man, who had chemical pneumonitis and respiratory distress after inhaling hexachloroethane/zinc oxide (HC/ZnO) smoke during military training. CASE PRESENTATION: The patients had been healthy previously and denied any history of alcohol or drug abuse. Hematologic tests revealed leukocytosis with neutrophils predominant. The respiratory conditions of both patients improved after steroid therapy and oxygen support, but deterioration of liver function was found. The laboratory results showed that alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase levels were elevated about 1.5-fold the normal limits and that asparrate aminotransferase (AST) levels were marginally elevated. The elevation of liver aminotransferase started from day 1 and day 2 and peaked from day 18 to day 22. ALVAST levels then returned to normal in 6 weeks. Common viral hepatitis was ruled out after serologic tests. Abdominal sonography and physical examination failed to show any specific findings. DISCUSSION: The hepatotoxic effect was attributed to inhalation of high-concentration HC/ZnO smoke in an enclosed area, where several hepatotoxicants, including ZnCl2, HC, and chlorinated vapors, could have been generated and mixed in the smoke. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE. These case reports elaborate the hepatic effects that may occur in addition to pulmonary effects of HC/ZnO smoke.

Public Domain

McAnulty JM; Jauncey ME; Monger CK; Hailstone ST; Alam NKM; Mannes TF et al. An epidemiological investigation into an outbreak of rash illness among methadone maintenance clients in Australia. Drug and Alcohol Review 26(3): 321-331, 2007. (13 refs.)

In late 2004, NSW Health received several reports of a serious desquamating rash among clients of the methadone program. We sought to identify the extent and likely cause of this outbreak. We initiated active surveillance for cases throughout Australia, a survey of dosing points in NSW, and a case control study of clients receiving methadone syrup (MS) at two clinics. Between October 2004 and March 2005, 388 cases were identified, largely in NSW. The dosing point survey found almost all cases were clients prescribed MS (attack rate 4.5%). In multivariate analysis of data from dosing points that dispensed MS, use of take away doses or location of the dosing point in greater western Sydney were associated with illness. In the case control study, MS injection, use of street MS, high doses of MS, frequent takeaway doses, or use of benzodiazepines were associated with illness. Testing found no abnormality in associated batches of MS. Batches of MS temporally associated with the outbreak were quarantined from use and the outbreak subsided. While a direct causal link could not be established, available evidence suggests that a contaminant may have caused the outbreak. Epidemiological analyses are important for assessing concerns about product safety following marketing approval.

McDaniel PA; Solomon G; Malone RE. The ethics of industry experimentation using employees: The case of taste-testing pesticide-treated tobacco. (review). American Journal of Public Health 96(1): 37-46, 2006. (121 refs.)

In the United States, companies that use their own funds to test consumer products on their employees are subject to few regulations. Using previously undisclosed tobacco industry documents, we reviewed the history of that industry's efforts to create internal guidelines on the conditions to be met before employee taste testers could evaluate cigarettes made from tobacco treated with experimental pesticides. This history highlights 2 potential ethical issues raised by unregulated industrial research: conflict of interest and lack of informed consent. To ensure compliance with accepted ethical standards, an independent federal office should be established to oversee industrial research involving humans exposed to experimental or increased quantities of ingested, inhaled, or absorbed chemical agents.

2006, American Public Health Association

McNeill A; Bedi R; Islam S; Alkhatib MN; West R. Levels of toxins in oral tobacco products in the UK. Tobacco Control 15(1): 64-67, 2006. (15 refs.)

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the constituents of smokeless tobacco products available in the UK and compared them with products available in India, Sweden, and the USA. METHODS: Seven UK brands of smokeless tobacco, including a tooth cleaning powder, and four international brands of smokeless tobacco were tested for a range of toxins and known carcinogens, such as tobacco specific N-nitrosamines (TSNA), as well as nicotine availability. RESULTS: Ten of the 11 brands tested had detectable levels of tobacco specific nitrosamines, which are proven carcinogens, and levels varied 130-fold. All had detectable levels of benzo(a)pyrene, another proven carcinogen (with around 175-fold variation) and several toxic metals (with nearly 150-fold variation). Nicotine availability varied in the UK products from 0.1 mg/g to 63.2 mg/g. All the tobacco products tested are likely to be hazardous to users' health, but the data indicate that it should be possible to reduce key toxins to non-detectable levels. CONCLUSIONS: Smokeless tobacco products should be regulated and standards set for maximum levels of toxins and carcinogens.

Nnorom IC; Osibanjo O; Oji-Nnorom CG. Cadmium determination in cigarettes available in Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology 4(10): 1128-1132, 2005. (32 refs.)

Cadmium (Cd) contents were determined in 30 brands of tobacco cigarette commonly available in Nigeria by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The concentration of Cd in the cigarettes ranged from 0.7 to 2.3 g/g dry weight with mean 1.48 +/- 0.46 g/g. Higher Cd concentrations were found in imported brands (1.52 +/- 0.46 g/g) compared to the Nigerian brands (1.10 +/- 0.35 g/g). Relatively lower Cd values were observed in cigarettes from developing countries (similar to 1.3 g/g) compared to brands from developed countries (> 1.3 g/g). The average Cd content of cigarettes available in Nigeria is 1.28 g per cigarette and a person who smokes 20 cigarettes per day is estimated to increase his daily Cd retention by approximately 1 g/day ( 0.53 - 1.65 g/day). The results indicate that smoking and exposure to cigarette smoke is a confounder to be taken into account when carrying out epidemiological studies on human exposure to cadmium.

Pankow JF; Luo W; Tavakoli AD; Chen C; Isabelle LM. Delivery levels and behavior of 1,3-butadiene, acrylonitrile, benzene, and other toxic volatile organic compounds in mainstream tobacco smoke from two brands of commercial cigarettes. Chemical Research in Toxicology 17(6): 805-813, 2004. (20 refs.)

Mainstream tobacco smoke (MTS) was collected from Camel and Marlboro cigarettes for the determination of the delivery levels and equilibrium gas/particle partitioning constants K-p (m(3) mug(-1)) of 26 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of toxicological interest. K-p values are important for understanding the fractional distribution of each compound of interest between the gas and the particle phases of MTS. The experimental method involved W drawing a smoke sample into a Teflon sampling bag at 20 degreesC, (ii) allowing the smoke particulate matter (PM) to collect on the walls of the bag, (iii) sampling the bag to determine the initial gas phase concentration of each VOC, (iv) removing the gas phase from the bag, (v) refilling the bag with humidified nitrogen gas, (vi) reestablishing the gas/PM equilibrium, and (vii) redetermining the gas phase concentrations. For each smoke sample, a comparison of the initial and redetermined gas phase concentrations allowed calculation of the total (i.e., gas + particle) delivery level (= m(tot), ng cig(-1)) and K-p value (= c(p)/c(g)) at 20 degreesC for each compound, where c(p) (ng mug(-1)) = concentration in the PM phase and c(g) (ng m(-3)) = concentration in the gas phase. Significant deliveries were observed for a number of carcinogenic VOCs. For the Camel cigarettes tested, the average m(tot) values for 1,3-butadiene, acrylonitrile, and benzene were 10(4.6), 10(4.4), and 10(4.8) ng cig(-1), respectively; for Marlboro, the m(tot) values were 10(5.0), 10(4.6) and 10(4.7) ng cig(-1), respectively. For each of the 26 VOCs, the smoke PM from the two brands yielded very similar Kp values at 20 degreesC. In addition, the vapor pressure-dependent Kp values of the 26 VOCs were in close agreement with predictions made by the Pankow theory of absorptive gas/ particle partitioning [Pankow, J. F. (1994) Atmos. Environ. 28, 185-188]. These results can be used in general predictions of chemical behavior in tobacco smoke, including deposition mechanisms and rates in the respiratory tract from inhaled MTS. Example calculations are provided to illustrate how the gas phase fraction at equilibrium (f(g,e)) increases strongly with increasing compound vapor pressure and temperature and with dilution of the inhaled tobacco smoke total PM concentration (mug m(-3)).

Paoletti L; De Berardis B; Arrizza L; Granato V. Influence of tobacco smoke on indoor PM10 particulate matter characteristics. Atmospheric Environment 40(18): 3269-3280, 2006. (26 refs.)

In this study we evaluate the influence of tobacco smoke on the physico-chemical characteristics of PM10 in different environments: outdoors, a smoking room, the same room after a 7-day absence of smokers and in a smoke-free office. The latter office was close to the smoking room, separated by a corridor. The coarse (PM10-2.1) and fine (PM2.1) fractions of PM10 collected in the monitored areas were analysed by scanning electron microscopy, equipped with a thin-window system for X-ray microanalysis (SEM/EDX). Photo-electron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to study the elemental composition of the particulate and to identify the chemical state of atomic species detected. Four clusters of particles for both "fine" and "coarse" fractions were identified: carbonaceous particles, soil erosion particles, Ca-sulphates and metal compound particles. EDX spectra showed that a percentage of carbonaceous particles carried S, Si and metal traces. High-resolution XPS spectra of the C Is region showed a significant greater occurrence of the C-O/C-N functional group in the particulate fine fraction collected in the smoking room compared to that collected outdoors. The carbonaceous component of coarse fraction collected in the smoking room appeared dissimilar from the same component detected in the other areas. After the 7-day absence of smokers this component of the PM10-2.1 fraction was similar to the corresponding coarse fraction collected at the outdoor location. The carbonaceous component of fine fraction collected in the smoking room, containing tobacco smoke products, such as organic carbon and nicotine, was traceable in the neighbouring areas, even several days after suspension of smoking activity.

Papadopoulou-Bouraoui A; Vrabcheva T; Valzacchi S; Stroka J; Anklam E. Screening survey of deoxynivalenol in beer from the European market by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Food Additives and Contaminants 21(6): 607-617, 2004. (40 refs.)

Deoxynivalenol (DON) was analysed in 313 beer samples collected from the European retail market using a commercially available immunoassay kit (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA). The incidence rate was about 87%, while most samples (73%) had contamination levels lower than 20 ng ml(-1). The contamination ranged between 4.0 and 56.7 ng ml(-1), with an average of 13.5 ng ml(-1). A statistically signi. cant correlation between alcohol levels and DON contamination was found, as well as a significant difference between bottom, top and spontaneous fermenting beers. Twenty-seven beer samples were compared using a second ELISA kit and a good correlation was obtained between the two kits (r = 0.93). Although when compared with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry the ELISA tended to overestimate the results, a good correlation (r = 0.94) between the two methods was observed. Monitoring of DON in beer is important considering that DON production is dependent on the weather and that it can contribute significantly to the tolerable daily intake of DON, especially for frequent beer consumers.

Parna K; Lang K; Raju K; Vaeli M; McKee M. A rapid situation assessment of the market for surrogate and illegal alcohols in Tallinn, Estonia. International Journal of Public Health 52(6): 402-410, 2007. (25 refs.)

Objectives: To understand the phenomenon of consumption of surrogate and illegal alcohols in Tallinn, capital of Estonia. Methods: This study, conducted in Tallinn in May 2006, used rapid situation assessment. Interviews with key informants in relevant settings such as emergency departments of hospitals, accommodation for the homeless, police etc. (n = 22), with alcohol abusers (n = 33), natural observations of surrogate sale and consumption venues (n = 46), and tracking of trade data were carried out. Results: Key informants confirmed that consumption of illegal and surrogate alcohols are widely used by alcohol abusers, a finding confirmed by the alcohol abusers. Availability of surrogates varied by area of the city, mainly sold from street kiosks. Illegally produced spirits were also easily available. Sales of surrogates appear to have increased in recent years. Conclusion: A range of alcohol-containing substances that appear to be easily available at low cost, and that have high concentration of ethanol or contaminants known to be toxic, were identified in Tallinn. Alcohol policies in Estonia should address the consumption and availability of these substances.

Parrott AC. Is ecstasy MDMA? A review of the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA, their dosage levels, and the changing perceptions of purity. (review). Psychopharmacology 173(3-4): 234-241, 2004. (59 refs.)

Aims. Not every tablet sold as "ecstasy" contains MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine). The historical origins and evolution of this mismatch will be reviewed, in order to estimate the proportions of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA at different periods over the past 30 years. Methods. Surveys into the pharmacological constituents of ecstasy tablets, dosage levels, and empirical reports of their perceived purity, provide the main data for this review. Results. During the 1980s and early 1990s there were few problems with the purity of ecstasy tablets, and the biochemical evidence shows that they nearly always contained MDMA. During the mid-1990s, the majority of ecstasy tablets continued to contain MDMA, while many others comprised MDA (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine), MDEA (3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine), or amphetamine drug mixtures. However, a small proportion (4-20% according to survey, time and place), comprised non-amphetamine drugs such as caffeine, ephedrine, ketamine, paracetamol, or placebo. During the late 1990s, the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA increased to around 80-90%. The latest reports suggest that non-MDMA tablets are now very infrequent, with purity levels between 90% and 100%. Dosage levels of tablets are also highly variable, with low dose tablet often encountered during the mid-1990s, and high dose tablets now seen more frequently. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings will be debated. Conclusions. The ecstasy purity problem was predominantly a phenomenon of the mid to late 1990s, when many tablets contained substances other than MDMA. Before and since then, the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA has been very high.

Paterson S; Cordero R. Comparison of the various opiate alkaloid contaminants and their metabolites found in illicit heroin with 6-monoacetyl morphine as indicators of heroin ingestion. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 30(4): 267-273, 2006. (24 refs.)

In this study the use of the various opiate alkaloid contaminants as potential markers for illicit heroin ingestion were investigated. Urine samples (n-227) taken from prisoners for routine drug screen, which were positive for opiates by immunoassay screening, were analyzed for contaminants in illicit heroin. A previously described method was used for the analysis; urines were extracted using fixed-mode solid-phase extraction; the extracts were derivatized using N-methyl-bistriflrorocetamide and N-Methyl-N trimethylsilyltrifluoroactamide/trimethylchrorosilane. The derivatized extracts were subjected to electron impact gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. ... Using the screening method described in the study, the following numbers of positives were found: 199 for morphine, 103 for codeine, 5 for meconine, 46 for desmethylmeconine, 18 for 6-mam, 136 for hydoxypapaverine and 139 for dihydroxypapaverine.

Peters RJ; Tortolero SR; Addy RC; Markham C; Yacoubian GS; Escobar-Chaves SL. Drug use among Texas alternative school students: Findings from Houston's Safer Choices 2 program. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 35(3): 383-387, 2003. (16 refs.)

Self-report drug use data were collected from 494 alternative school students, grades seven through 12, surveyed through the Safer Choices 2 study in Houston, Texas. Data were collected between October 2000 and March 2001 via audio-enabled laptop computers equipped with headphones. Twenty-eight percent of the sample reported past-month marijuana use, and 10% reported past-month opiate/codeine use. Males were almost twice as likely as females to have used cocaine during the past month, and over four times as likely to have used opiates/codeine during the past month. Students 16 years and older and were twice as likely to have ever used cocaine and opiates/codeine than students under 16 years. Latinos were 10 times more likely than Blacks to have ever used cocaine; Blacks were twice as likely as Latinos to have used opiates/codeine during the past month. Males were twice as likely as females to have tried "fry," a new street drug made of tobacco or marijuana mixed with embalming fluid and PCP. These new drug trends are startling because they indicate a potential for long-term treatment services for abusers.

Santos GD; Marques EP; Silva HAD; Bezerra CWB; Marques AB. Identification and characterization of crystal violet in cassava spirits (tiquira). Quimica Nova 28(4): 583-586, 2005. (16 refs.)

Tiquira is a traditional homemade alcoholic distillate produced in the Maranhao State (Brazil), gotten from cassava (Manihot esculenta, Crantz.). It can be normally found on street markets. Due to the addition of tangerine leaves, the original tiquira has a bluish color. Samples of this beverage were acquired in the local trade and analyzed from the spectroanalytical point of view. The results indicated that these drinks had been adulterated by the addition of crystal violet, a potencialy hazardous compound. The identification and quantification of crystal violet in 10 spiked samples was accomplished by UV-Vis spectrophotometry through the standard addition method. In order to verify the efficiency of the proposed method, experiments on the quantification and recovery were carried out and the results indicated a content of crystal violet in the 10(-6) to 10(-7) mol L-1 range.

Savchuk SA; Kolesov GM; Nuzhnyi VP. Chromatographic study of the chemical composition and potential toxicity of spirits and alcoholic beverages. Journal of Analytical Chemistry 62(6): 575-582, 2007. (17 refs.)

The composition of vodkas, rectified food alcohols, cognacs, cognac spirits, and other strong alcoholic beverages was studied by chromatography and compared with the composition of industrial (synthetic and hydrolysis) ethyl alcohols, adulterated cognacs, and homemade spirits (samogon) from the illicit market. It was found that the majority of the test alcohol-containing liquids were close to commercial alcoholic beverages in terms of chemical composition and toxic properties. The samples containing ethylene glycol and enriched components of the head fraction of rectification should be considered most toxic.

Schnaitmann R; Hack M; Glaser F; Schutze B; Tsegai E; Kleber G. Pulmonary infiltrates in a 19 year old patient with dysuria and hypercalcemia. Internist 45(8): 940-945, 2004. (5 refs.)

A 19 year old patient presented with the typical constellation of sarcoidosis. In the presence of indefinable pulmonary infiltrates, hypercalcemia, raised angiotensin converting enzyme and even evidence of giant and epitheloid cell granulomas, cocaine abuse should be considered. Chronic inhalative cocaine abuse can cause foreign body associated granulomatosis of the lung and other organs. It is important to establish this differential diagnosis by confidential interview and systematic polarisation microscopy to detect foreign material in tissues: unnecessary therapies with potential side effects should be avoided and drug weaning with rehabilitation of the patient should be initiated. However the potential for rapid progressive respiratory failure should not be underestimated.

Shin JH; Chung MJ; Sung NJ. Occurrence of N-nitrosodimethylamine in South Korean and imported alcoholic beverages. Food Additives and Contaminants 22(11): 1083-1086, 2005. (20 refs.)

Volatile N-nitrosamine ( VNA) levels in South Korean and imported alcoholic beverages were determined between 1995 and 2002. A total of 147 alcoholic beverages, including lager beer, whisky, liqueurs and traditional Korean alcoholic beverages ( Chungju, Takju and Soju), were analysed for their VNA content by GC-TEA. Of eight VNAs ( N-nitrosodimethylamine ( NDMA), N-nitrosodiethylamine ( NDEA), N-nitrosopyrrolidine ( NPYR), N-nitrosomorphorine ( NMOR), N-nitrosodibuthylamine ( NDBA), N-nitrosopiperidine ( NPIP), N-nitrosodiprophylamine ( NDPA) and N-nitrosodiphenylamine ( NDPhA)) only NDMA was detected. In 1995, NDMA was detected in 79.3% of domestic beers; the average was 0.8 mu g kg(-1). Seven years later, the average NDMA level for 18 domestic beers was 0.3 mg kg(-1) and it was positive in 55.6% samples. In whisky and liqueurs, NDMA levels averaged < 0.1 mu g kg(-1) in both 1995 and 2002. Average NDMA levels of Chungju in 1995 were < 0.1 mg kg(-1), but NDMA was not detected in 2002. Takju had undetectable levels of NDMA both times. In 1995, NDMA was found in four of six Soju samples, but in 2002, NDMA could not be detected.

Singer M; Mirhej G; Shaw S; Saleheen H; Vivian J; Hastings E et al. When the drug of choice is a drug of confusion: Embalming fluid use in inner city Hartford, CT. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse 4(2): 73-96, 2005. (20 refs.)

This paper examines the use of a new illicit drug -- embalming fluid mixtures -- in Hartford, CT based on a recent assessment of drug consumption in an outreach-recruited sample of 242 not-in-treatment active drug users. Sociodemographic, drug use, and health and social problems of drug users who do and do not use embalming fluid mixture are presented, revealing some notable differences between these two groups of street drug users. Despite regular consumption, we report that embalming fluid mixture users are often uncertain about what is in this new drug, despite experiencing often powerful effects. Urine toxicology findings from a subsample of individuals who used embalming fluid mixtures in the last 48 hours, reveal the frequent presence of phencyclidine (PCP) as well as other drugs. The public health implications of this new wave of PCP use are assessed.

Spitters C; Moran J; Kruse D; Berg N; Leslie M; Homann J. Wound botulism among black tar heroin users - Washington, 2003. Archives of Dermatology 139(12): 1661-1662, 2003. (6 refs.)

During August 22-26, 2003, four injection-drug users (IDUs) in Yakima County, Washington, sought medical care at the same hospital with complaints of several days of weakness, drooping eyelids, blurred vision, and difficulty speaking and swallowing. All four were regular, nonintravenous injectors of black tar heroin (BTH), and one also snorted BTH. This report summarizes the investigation of these cases, which implicated wound botulism (WB) as the cause of illness. Clinical findings, laboratory results, and epidemiologic features of this outbreak reflect previous descriptions of WB in IDUs.2-4 BTH might be contaminated during the "cutting" process through incorporation of spore-laden adulterants such as dirt or boot polish.3-4 Heating the drug does not inactivate clostridial spores, and safe injection practices that protect against bloodborne infection do not reduce the risk for WB. In January 2002, a cluster of seven cases of necrotizing fasciitis occurred among IDUs in Yakima County.5 The route of injection was reported as subcutaneous in three of the patients, two of whom died. Clostridia spp. were identified in specimens from these three cases; in one case, subtyping was carried out, and the isolate was identified as Clostridium sordelii. These persons were in the same IDU network as those in the current botulism outbrea

Stepanov I; Jensen J; Hatsukami D; Hecht SS. Tobacco-specific nitrosamines in new tobacco products. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 8(2): 309-313, 2006. (15 refs.)

New tobacco products, designed to attract consumers who are concerned about the health effects of tobacco, have been appearing on the market. Objective evaluation of these products requires, as a first step, data on their potentially toxic constituents. Tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) are an important class of carcinogens in tobacco products, but virtually no data were available on their levels in these products. In the present study, we analyzed several new products-Ariva, Stonewall, Exalt, Revel, Smokey Mountain, and Quest-for TSNAs and compared their TSNA levels with those in nicotine replacement products and conventional smokeless tobacco and cigarette brands. TSNAs were not detected in Smokey Mountain, which is a tobacco-free snuff product. The lowest levels among the new products containing tobacco were in Ariva and Stonewall (0.26-0.28 mu g/g wet weight of product). The highest levels in the new products were found in Exalt (3.3 mu g/g tobacco), whereas Revel and Quest had intermediate amounts. Only trace amounts were found in nicotine replacement products, and conventional brands had levels consistent with those reported in the literature. These results demonstrate that TSNA levels in new tobacco products range from relatively low to comparable with those found in some conventional brands.

Stephens WE; Calder A; Newton J. Source and health implications of high toxic metal concentrations in illicit tobacco products. Environmental Science & Technology 39(2): 479-488, 2005. (78 refs.)

A significant flux of heavy metals, among other toxins, reaches the lungs through smoking. Consequently, contaminated soil is usually avoided for tobacco cultivation. Here we compare the heavy metal concentrations in tobacco from a sample of 47 counterfeit products, representative of the substantial market for these products in the U.K., with their genuine equivalents and find significantly higher concentrations of heavy metals in the counterfeits. Trace element patterns suggest that over-application of fertilizers (phosphate and/or nitrate) is the most likely cause. Nitrogen isotopes showed no significant enrichment in N-15 (delta(15)N range from +1.1 to +4.6parts per thousand in counterfeits and from +2.5 to +3.3parts per thousand in genuine tobaccos) as might be expected from a sewage or manure source of nitrate, and a mineral phosphate source is considered the more likely source of metals. Stable carbon isotopes in the same tobaccos have a wide range(delta(13)C -18.3to -26.4parts per thousand), indicating the influence of multiple controls during cultivation and possibly post-harvesting. A review of the health effects of heavy metal transfer from tobacco via smoke to the lungs indicates that habitual smokers of counterfeits may be risking additional harm from high levels of cadmium and possibly other metals.

Tanner-Smith EE. Pharmacological content of tablets sold as �ecstasy�: Results from an online testing service. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 83(3): 247-254, 2006. (42 refs.)

Purpose: This study examined the pharmacological content of tablets sold as ecstasy, the variation of tablet content by geographic region, and change in tablet content between 1999 and 2005. Methods: The sample was comprised of tablets anonymously submitted for laboratory testing between 1999 and 2005 (n = 1214). Tablet height, width, geographic region, and year of submission were all used to predict the pharmacological content of the tablets. Results: Overall, 39% of the tablets were comprised of MDMA only, 46% only contained substances other than MDMA and 15% were mixtures of MDMA and other substances. Tablet height and width were inversely related to tablet purity. Ecstasy tablets from California and Florida had decreased likelihoods of containing non-MDMA substances. The purity of tablets decreased over time, which was largely a result of an increasing number of tablets comprised of MDMA along with other substances. Conclusions: Ecstasy users may be putting themselves at increased risk of substance-induced anxiety, mood, and psychotic disorders by unknowingly ingesting substances other than MDMA. To decrease detrimental health effects, prevention programs should emphasize the impurity of ecstasy tablets and focus on the health impacts of these substances, particularly for populations at high-risk of substance-induced disorders.

Taylor A; Hutchinson S; Lingappa J; Wadd S; Ahmed S; Gruer L. Severe illness and death among injecting drug users in Scotland: A case-control study. Epidemiology and Infection 133(2): 193-204, 2005. (33 refs.)

Between April and September 2000, 60 injecting drug users in Scotland died or were hospitalized with severe illness. Laboratory investigations suggested that Clostridium novyi and other bacteria were important aetiological agents. To determine associated environmental/behavioural factors a case-control study was undertaken with 19 'definite' and 32 'probable' cases in Glasgow, Scotland. For every deceased case (n = 19), up to three proxy individuals were interviewed. Three controls were identified for each case. Multivariate logistic regression analyses compared (i) all cases and controls; (ii) definite cases and matched controls; (iii) probable cases and matched controls. In all three analyses injecting into muscle or skin and injecting most of the time with a filter used by someone else were the variables most strongly associated with illness. Comparing only muscle-injecting cases and controls, cases were significantly more likely to have injected larger amounts of heroin per average injection than were controls. The findings make an important epidemiological contribution to the understanding of the public health and clinical implications of the contamination of illicit drugs by histotoxic clostridia.

Teng SF; Wu SC; Liu CR; Li JH; Chien CS. Characteristics and trends of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) tablets found in Taiwan from 2002 to February 2005. Forensic Science International 161(2-3): 202-208, 2006. (19 refs.)

One hundred and eighty-one 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) containing tablets were sampled from confiscated drugs received by the Taiwan National Bureau of Controlled Drugs for testing from 2002 to February 2005. Sample tablets demonstrated various colors and logos. The appearances, contents of MDMA and other components in these tablets were analyzed in order to understand the characteristics and trends of MDMA use. Samples were analyzed using GC-MS methodology. Deuterated internal standards were used for drug quantification. The MDMA contents varied from 16 to 193 mg/tablet. 66-71% of the tablets seized each year contained only MDMA, and the content of MDMA in MDMA only tablets varied from 89 to 133 mg/tablet. There was a decreasing trend in MDMA content in these tablets over time. Other components commonly found besides MDMA included caffeine (18%), methamphetamine (7%), 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) (7%) and amphetamine (4%). 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), ketamine, ephedrine, diazepam, chlorzoxazone and nicotinamide were also detected. During the study period, the number of other drugs found as well as the combinations of different drugs detected in these tablets increased.

Thapa S; Tamang JP. Product characterization of kodo ko jaanr: Fermented finger millet beverage of the Himalayas. Food Microbiology 21(5): 617-622, 2004. (21 refs.)

Kodo ko jaanr is a traditional mild-alcoholic beverage prepared from seeds of finger millets in the Eastern Himalayas. Forty samples of kodo ko jaanr were collected from the Darjeeling hills and Sikkim in India and subjected to microbiological and analytical characterization. Population of yeasts and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) was detected at the level of 7.1 and 5.9 log cfu g(-1), respectively. Yeasts consisted of Pichia anomala, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida glabrata, Saccharomycopsis fibuligera, and LAB consisted of Pediococcus pentosaceus and Lactobacillus bifermentans in kodo ko jaanr samples. Samples were tested for pathogenic contaminants. Enterobacteriaceae, Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus were not detected in any sample. The pH moisture, acidity and alcohol content of the product were 4.1, 69.7%, 0.27% and 4.8%, respectively. Kodo ko jaanr is rich in crude fibre. Ash, fat, protein and calorie content remained the same as that of substrate.

Torjussen W; Zachariasen H; Andersen I. Cigarette smoking and nickel exposure. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 5(2): 198-201, 2003. (27 refs.)

The tobacco plant contains nickel and several other toxic metals, most probable absorbed from the soil, fertilizing products or from pesticides. It has been stated that nickel in a burning cigarette might form the volatile, gaseous compound, nickel tetracarbonyl. and thereby be introduced into the respiratory tract. Accordingly the main objective of the present study as to find out if nickel content in inhaled smoke from ordinary cigarettes and nickel-contaminated cigarettes handmade by nickel process workers might be a supplementary source of nickel exposure to cigarette smoking process workers leading to additional risk of occupational respiratory cancer in these workers. Blood and urine samples from 318 randomly selected employees from Falconbridge Nickel Refinery in Kristiansand, Norway, allocated to 197 smokers and 121 non-smokers were analysed for nickel content, Nickel quantities in tobacco from various cigarette brands, from nickel-contaminated cigarettes made by process workers or from cigarettes added known amounts of various nickel salts where analysed before being, smoked. The cigarettes were smoked in I smoking machine device applying an electrostatic filter. Blood and Mine, tobacco. ash and precipitates in the filter from the main stream smoke of the cigarettes were analysed for nickel quantities by atomic absorption spectrometry methods as previously described by the authors. The nickel concentrations in blood plasma and urine were quite similar among smokers and non-smokers. 6.2 and 48.1 mug L (1) in smokers and 6.4 and 50.5 mug L I in non-smokers respectively. We recovered 1.1%, or even less of nickel in the mainstream smoke after smoking, the entire cigarettes without leaving any butt. Most of the tobacco nickel was recovered in the ash. We conclude that the inhaled nickel in the working atmosphere is probably the main source of the nickel exposure to the respirators tract in these workers. It remains to be determined by smoking still seems to be a decisive cofactor in the development of respiratory tract cancer in nickel workers.

Uryupin AB; Fomina LM. Analysis of tobacco smoke condensates. Journal of Analytical Chemistry 60(8): 784-787, 2005. (17 refs.)

The applicability of standard methods to determining tar and nicotine in tobacco smoke condensates by the mechanical smoking of cigarettes was assessed for the differentiation of samples satisfying cur rently accepted hygienic standards. The tar-to-nicotine concentration ratio was proposed as an assessment criterion for characterizing samples in order to reveal off-grade products.

Vagg R; Chapman S. Nicotine analogues: A review of tobacco industry research interests. Addiction 100(5): 701-712, 2005. (33 refs.)

Aims: To explore the tobacco industry's interest and intentions driving its nicotine analogue research. Methods: Review of internal tobacco industry documents regarding nicotine analogues released as part of the Master Settlement Agreement between the tobacco industry and US state governments in 1998. Findings: The tobacco industry investigated nicotine analogues extensively. Four principal areas of interest are evident. First, research on tobacco products was directed towards greater understanding of nicotine pharmacology, how to screen for potential analogues and how to separate the central and peripheral effects of nicotine. Secondly, interest lay in the potential for analogues to replace nicotine in order to create more 'desirable' products and to circumvent anticipated nicotine regulation. Thirdly, interest lay in potential pharmaceutical applications for analogues such as treatments for neurological disorders. Finally, there was interest in the public relations potential of the therapeutic potential of analogues to reduce the demonization of nicotine, by allowing the industry to point to its beneficial uses. Conclusions: With tobacco product and nicotine regulation being increasingly advocated in tobacco control it is important to understand the industry's interests in the potential role of nicotine analogues. Initial interest included using analogues as a means to circumvent regulation, but evidence suggests these plans were discarded due to fear that this may have instigated regulation of tobacco products. Nicotine analogue research has led to potential therapeutic uses for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases and alarmingly for the industry, to a potential vaccine to prevent nicotine addiction. Recommendations: Tobacco manufacturers should be obliged to declare all additives being used in tobacco products. Regulatory bodies should be aware that that there is a distinct possibility that the industry has discovered ways to circumvent future regulation of nicotine through the utilization of nicotine analogues. Any regulatory drafting should broaden the definition of nicotine in order to incorporate analogues into the scope of pharmacologically active substances being regulated.

Vesper HW; Bernert JT; Ospina M; Meyers T; Ingham L; Smith A et al. Assessment of the relation between biomarkers for smoking and biomarkers for acrylamide exposure in humans. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 16(11): 2471-2478, 2007. (44 refs.)

Smoking is an important source of acrylamide exposure in the general population. We assessed the relationship between hemoglobin adducts of acrylamide (HbAA) and glycidamide (HbGA) as biomarkers of acrylamide exposure and plasma cotinine (PC) as biomarkers of tobacco smoke exposure in 94 men and 67 women. The median (5th-95th percentile) biomarker concentrations (pmol/g Hb) in the group of individuals with PC concentrations of <= 10 ng/mL were 51 (29-155) and 34 (16-117) for HbAA and HbGA, respectively. They were significantly lower than those in the group of individuals with PC concentrations of >10 ng/mL [194 (87-403) and 107 (41-215) for HbAA and HbGA, respectively]. In individuals with PC concentrations of <1 ng/mL, HbAA and HbGA were similar to those observed in the group with PC values of <= 10 ng/mL. The intersubject variability was profoundly smaller in the group with PC values of <= 10 ng/mL compared with the group with PC values of >10 ng/mL. Although HbAA and HbGA could be categorized into distinguishable groups using PC concentration ranges commonly used to categorize presumed smokers and nonsmokers, no significant relationship was observed between these two biomarkers and PC within each group. The different exposure periods reflected by these biomarkers and the resulting different susceptibility to short-term variations in exposure patterns may in part explain these observations. The findings suggest that tobacco smoke exposure in individuals with PC values of <1 ng/mL has only a minimal effect on HbAA and HbGA.

Yong RL; Holmes DT; Sreenivasan GM. Aluminum toxicity due to intravenous injection of boiled methadone. (letter). New England Journal of Medicine 354(11): 1210-1211, 2006. (5 refs.)