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CORK Bibliography: Alcohol Beverage Industry

61 citations. January 2003 to present

Prepared: March 2008

Adams PJ. Assessing whether to receive funding support from tobacco, alcohol, gambling and other dangerous consumption industries. Addiction 102(7): 1027-1033, 2007. (29 refs.)

Aim: To examine the risks taken by health, research and community organizations when they opt to receive funding from dangerous consumption industries and to identify ways in which they might generate their own assessment of these risks. Methods Common risks associated with industry involvements are examined, along with potential barriers to self- reflection. Results: Funds derived from tobacco, alcohol, gambling and other dangerous consumptions are accessed increasingly by public good organizations. The variety of risks these involvements incur place individuals and organizations somewhere along a continuum of moral jeopardy, stretching from those with minor involvements to those with unmanageable conflicts of interest. The concept of a 'continuum' is preferable to a 'binary' interpretation in that the latter tends to lock understandings into all-or-nothing positions, thereby discouraging reflection and discussion regarding ethical and moral issues. Active scrutiny of these risks can be assisted through strategies that promote ongoing self-assessment. This is illustrated in the application of criteria that help breakdown risks and provide guidance in deciding on the extent of involvement with industry funding. Conclusion: The paper finishes with practical examples of educational and assessment strategies that could assist in reducing moral jeopardy.

Adams PJ. Trusting researchers to police themselves. Addiction 102(7): 1039-1040, 2007. (30 refs.)

Aim: To examine the risks taken by health, research and community organizations when they opt to receive funding from dangerous consumption industries and to identify ways in which they might generate their own assessment of these risks. Methods: Common risks associated with industry involvements are examined, along with potential barriers to self-reflection. Results: Funds derived from tobacco, alcohol, gambling and other dangerous consumptions are accessed increasingly by public good organizations. The variety of risks these involvements incur place individuals and organizations somewhere along a continuum of moral jeopardy, stretching from those with minor involvements to those with unmanageable conflicts of interest. The concept of a 'continuum' is preferable to a 'binary' interpretation in that the latter tends to lock understandings into all-or-nothing positions, thereby discouraging reflection and discussion regarding ethical and moral issues. Active scrutiny of these risks can be assisted through strategies that promote ongoing self-assessment. This is illustrated in the application of criteria that help breakdown risks and provide guidance in deciding on the extent of involvement with industry funding. Conclusion: The paper finishes with practical examples of educational and assessment strategies that could assist in reducing moral jeopardy.

Alcohol Advisory Council of New Zealand. Submission to the Liquor Advertising Review 2003. Wellington New Zealand: Alcohol Advisory Council of New Zealand, 2003. (16 refs.)

This document provides ALAC's comments on the issue of liquor advertising on radio and television and includes discussion on the related area of sponsorship. It concludes with the following recommendations: (1) there should be no further liberalisation of broadcast advertising of alcohol given emerging evidence of a link between alcohol advertising and drinking culture in a country; (2) there should be a rationalisation of the current self-regulation codes for broadcasting to include all liquor advertising and to strengthen the regulatory focus on "new" media. This approach would enable a greater degree of focus on all media and all forms of advertising, for example sponsorship, that has the greatest influence on young people and the culture of drinking in New Zealand (3) the naming, packaging and marketing of alcoholic products should be included in a cross-industry regulatory approach to promotion marketing and advertising. (4) In terms of research, research that focuses on behaviour change modelling, cognitive development, social influences, self image and the psychological factors that contribute to alcohol use and the link, if any with alcohol advertising; and this research must include the impact of alcohol advertising on Maori and other groups in New Zealand society. (5) In terms of low alcohol products, the ALAC considers it too soon to support any recommendation that supports advertisements for low alcohol beer being able to emphasise the lower alcohol content. (6) In terms of the 9:00 watershed, the ALAC does not believe there are sufficient reasons to justify changing the 9.00pm watershed to an 8.30pm, or allow liquor advertisements during the news, live sport and in certain circumstances between noon and 3pm weekdays; and the watershed for alcohol advertising on television should be 9.30pm. (7) Programme sponsorship must be included in the regulatory framework dealing with alcohol advertising. (8) Heroes of the young. The ALAC does not support any move to allow heroes of the young to be used in liquor advertisements advocating moderate drinking. Inclusion of such people in any liquor advertising has the potential to further entrench alcohol as a normative part of society. (8) Moderation messages. There should be an increase in moderation messages via the broadcast media in order to offset the existing imbalance between the advertising of alcohol and public health messages promoting moderation where currently, exposure of brands through sponsorship is not a consideration. (9) With regard to the current Promotion of Liquor Programme Code, we make the following observations: ALAC believes broadcasters are overly concerned about the impact of the current Promotion of Liquor Programme Code. We find it difficult to believe that documentary style programmes about hop farms, vineyards or beer, wine and spirit production could be viewed as promoting the consumption of alcohol. ALAC has the same opinion in relation to broadcasters apparent diffidence in filming sporting events, sports people and sports officials because of the need to avoid showing signs promoting liquor, hats and other promotion material including uniforms. We believe broadcasters are overstating the case as far as broadcasting of some overseas programmes is concerned, many local programmes also feature liquor consumption as part of the story line - these do not appear to concern broadcasters and ALAC again believes that broadcasters are overstating the case. We suggest that this could be addressed as part of the work in rationalising the regulation of all alcohol advertising and sponsorship.

Public Domain

Anderson P. The beverage alcohol industry's social aspects organizations: A public health warning. Addiction 99(11): 1376, 2004. (3 refs.)

Over the last 20 years the beverage alcohol industry has set up and funded social aspects organizations to manage issues that may be detrimental to its business. Social aspects organizations operate at the global level, the European level and at the country level, in high, middle and low income countries. They aim to manage issues by attempting to influence the alcohol policies of national and international governmental organizations; becoming members of relevant non-alcohol specific organizations and committees to broaden policy influence and respectability; recruiting scientists, hosting conferences and promoting high profile publications; creating social aspects organizations in emerging markets and low income countries; and preparing and promoting consensus statements and codes of practice. Social aspects organizations hold five main viewpoints which on inspection confirm their overall aim, which is to benefit the beverage alcohol industry, rather than to benefit public health or the public good [3]. They view that: 1.) addressing patterns of drinking rather than volume of alcohol consumption is the best basis for alcohol policies; 2.) responsible drinking can be learned and that this should be the cornerstone of alcohol policy; 3.) they have an equal place at the policy table, even though the evidence that they bring to the table is not impartial; 4.) the marketing of alcoholic beverages should be self-regulated even though the industry blatantly, consistently and extensively breaks its own codes; and 5.) alcohol, despite its potential for 'abuse', confers a net benefit to society. In relating to the beverage alcohol industry, Eurocare has made the following recommendations: 1. Governments need to implement evidence based policies to reduce the harm done by alcohol, with such policies formulated by public health interests, recognizing that the viewpoints of social aspects organizations are not impartial; 2. Governmental organizations should be concerned at spending public money on programmes put forward by the social aspects organizations, since such programmes lack evidence of effectiveness; 3. A proportion of alcohol taxes, hypothecated for the purpose, should be used to fund relevant independent non-governmental organizations to implement evidence based campaigns to reduce the harm done by alcohol; 4. Governments should support non-governmental organizations that are independent of the beverage alcohol industry; 5. Independent non-governmental organizations that have a specific role with regard to safeguarding effective alcohol policy should inform and mobilize civil society with respect to alcohol-related problems, lobby for implementation of effective policy at government level, and expose any harmful actions of the beverage alcohol industry; 6 In discharging their role, non-governmental organizations mentioned in point 5 above should remain completely independent of social aspects organizations; 7. All independent scientists that are paid by or undertake work for social aspects organizations and the beverage alcohol industry should state their declarations of interest in their scientific publications; 8. Research scientists in high income countries should consider their ethical responsibility not to profit from or contribute the beverage alcohol industry's actions in low income countries; and 9. Greater vigilance and monitoring of beverage alcohol industry behaviour is needed.

Austin EW; Hust SJT. Targeting adolescents? The content and frequency of alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverage ads in magazine and video formats: November 1999-April 2000. Journal of Health Communication 10(8): 769-785, 2005. (24 refs.)

This study compared alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverage advertising to which adolescents are exposed. A census of beverage advertising (N = 757) in popular magazines and television during November 1999-April 2000 was analyzed. Most alcohol ads appeared in Sports Illustrated (110), Rolling Stone (98), and Playboy (75) and outnumbered nonalcoholic beverage advertising by 3 to 1. Alcohol was almost never associated with dining. Alcohol ads emphasized sexual and social stereotypes and lacked diversity. One of every 6 magazine alcohol ads, and 1 of every 14 video-based ads, appeared to target teenagers. Many similarities existed between alcohol and nonalcohol ads. We conclude that alcohol is advertised heavily to youth through placement and appeals. The fact that themes in alcohol ads frequently parallel those in nonalcoholic beverage ads may further increase youths' receptivity.

Babor TF; McGovern TF. Minimizing moral jeopardy -- Perils of the slippery slope. Addiction 102(7): 1037-1038, 2007. (2 refs.)

This is a commentary on the article in this issue by Adams, "Assessing whether to receive funding support from tobacco, alcohol, gambling and other dangerous consumption industries." The authors here raise questions about the role of institutions in promoting its members to pursue research funding from these sources.

Balestrini P; Gamble P. Country-of-origin effects on Chinese wine consumers. British Food Journal 108(5): 396-412, 2006. (69 refs.)

Purpose: The paper seeks to examine Chinese consumers' wine-purchasing behaviour and, more especially, the importance of country of origin (COO) effects in the evaluation and assessment of wine quality and as it relates to decision making for wine purchases. Design/methodology/approach - The data for this study were collected in 2004 through an interviewer-administered, structured questionnaire targeted at randomly selected wine buyers in the ChangNing district of Shanghai (China). Chinese consumers tend to purchase wine primarily for sensorial reasons, consuming it on social occasions. Wine has never acquired the connotations of being merely a thirst-quenching drink as it did in some European countries. They are also attracted to wine for its health benefits. Findings - It was found that Chinese consumers are more likely to use extrinsic cues than intrinsic cues to evaluate wine quality. Thus, COO information is a significantly more important cue than price for Chinese consumers as a quality cue. However, there appears to be no significant difference in the importance of COO and brand in this regard. Wine is a complex product - small differences in any one of a huge range of variables, from the weather, through the grape, the production method, the storage and even the bottling can affect quality. As might be expected in a market that is relatively under-developed and which has a smaller experience of wine drinking than some other parts of the world, Chinese consumers pay much more attention to COO when they purchase wine for special occasions, where their choice is exposed to the judgment of others. By contrast, when purchasing wine for their own private consumption, COO assumes a lesser importance. Originality/value - This research can significantly help wine marketers to develop more effective positioning strategies in China. It will also help in the development of pricing and promotional decisions.

Batra A. Funding support -- Cui Bono? Addiction 102(7): 1035-1035, 2007. (4 refs.)

This is a commentary on the article by Adams in this issue that addresses the potential peril of accempting funding from tobaco, alcohol, gambling and other dangerous consumption industries.

Beaglehole R; Yach D. Globalisation and the prevention and control of non-communicable disease: The neglected chronic diseases of adults. Lancet 362(9387): 903-908, 2003. (57 refs.)

The growing global burden of non-communicable diseases in poor countries and poor populations has been neglected by policy makers, major multilateral and bilateral aid donors, and academics. Despite strong evidence for the magnitude of this burden, the preventability of its causes, and the threat it poses to already strained health care systems, national and global actions have been inadequate. Globalisation is an important determinant of non-communicable disease epidemics since it has direct effects on risks to populations and indirect effects on national economies and health systems. The globalisation of the production and marketing campaigns of the tobacco and alcohol industries exemplify the challenges to policy makers and public health practitioners. A full range of policy responses is required from government and non-governmental agencies; unfortunately the capacity and resources for this response are insufficient, and governments need to respond appropriately. The progress made in controlling the tobacco industry is a modest cause for optimism.

Buhringer G. Don't cover up distinct responsibilities, but co-operate on the action level under certain conditions. Addiction 99(11): 1379-1380, 2004. (5 refs.)

Australia is far away from Germany, and public health issues there are not familiara to the author. However, the co-operation of the Australian drinks industry and an addiction agency (Alcohol and Drug Foundation-Queensland - ADFQ) within a newly formed Alcohol Education Australia Ltd (AEA) indeed raises fundamental issues. It is important for the two 'stakeholders' to remain cognizant of their responsibilities: 1.) addiction agencies like ADFQ should promote a public-health based alcohol policy to prevent and reduce alcohol related harm, mobilise society and lobby for the implementation of effective actions at parliamental and governmental level. 2.) Primarily, responsibility of the beverage alcohol industry is to guarantee or improve shareholder value. They also have a product liability for their beverages, which includes the obligation, among others, to inform customers about possible risks of their products, to protect minors and to avoid such marketing strategies including advertising, which bear the risk to increase harmful consequences for customers. With these conflicting responsibilities in mind, an alcohol agency like ADFQ should never engage in actions to advise the alcohol industry how to win a licence for the marketing of a new alcoholic product like in the Moo Joose case. [Note: This reflects an epidsode in Australia in which there were efforts to market an alcoholic milk, and an alcohol/drug agency helped in preparation of the licensing application.

Caetano R; Laranjeira R. A 'perfect storm' in developing countries: Economic growth and the alcohol industry. (editorial). Addiction 101(2): 149-152, 2006. (13 refs.)

Caswell S. Industry influences: More case studies needed. Addiction 99(11): 1378, 2004. (7 refs.)

Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth. Drops in the Bucket: Alcohol Industry "Responsibility" Advertising on Television in. Washington DC: Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth, Georgetown University, 2003. (15 refs.)

Alcohol abuse is the leading drug problem among America's youth. Youth alcohol-related motor vehicle deaths have risen in the past two years, despite a decline in the number of young people reporting drinking. Alcohol continues to be closely associated with the three leading killers of kids: motor vehicle crashes and other unintentional injuries, suicides and homicides. Efforts to have alcohol included in the federal "drug czar's" anti-drug campaign have been defeated twice in Congress, although the federal anti-drug campaign has included some alcohol Public Service Announcements (PSAs) developed by other organizations in its "match" with networks, that is, in time slots donated by the networks. By default, therefore, alcohol companies have become the primary source of educational messages about alcohol abuse on television. Following on its recent reports on alcohol advertising in national magazines and on television, the Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth (CAMY) commissioned Virtual Media Resources (VMR), a media planning and research firm in Natick, Massachusetts, to analyze the alcohol industry's televised "responsibility" ads in 2001, using the same standard data sources and methodologies employed by media planning and buying professionals. While many alcohol ads include brief or small voluntary warnings (which research has found to be ineffective), 6 "responsibility ads" for the purposes of this report had to have as their primary focus a clear, unambiguous message about drinking responsibly, not drinking and driving, or discouraging underage drinking. The alcohol industry placed 208,909 commercials promoting alcoholic beverages on television in 2001, compared to 2,379 responsibility ads. In auditing these ads, the Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth finds the following: (1.) All told, alcohol companies placed more than 87 product promotion commercials in 2001 for every ad about not driving after drinking or not drinking before age 21. Spending on responsibility advertising accounted for less than 3% of the industry's television advertising budget. (2.) Alcohol companies placed 172 product promotion commercials on television in 2001 for every drinking and driving awareness ad. More than twice as many adults7 were exposed to these drinking and driving awareness ads as youth. (3.) Alcohol companies placed 179 product promotion commercials on television in 2001 for every legal drinking age ad, and again more than twice as many adults were exposed to these ads discouraging underage drinking as youth. In 2001, the alcohol industry spent a total of $811.2 million on measured television advertising for products, $23.2 million on responsibility TV advertising (ads about not drinking and driving and about the legal drinking age), and $13.4 million on other corporate, community and civic TV advertising. Responsibility TV advertising represented 2.7% of expenditures and 1% of ad placements in 2001.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Jernigan DH; OstrollJ; Ross CS; Naimi TS; Brewer RD. Youth exposure to alcohol advertising on radio -- United States, June-August 2004. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 55(34): 937-940, 2006. (10 refs.)

In the United State more underage youth drink alcohol than somke tobacco or use illit drugs. Recent studies have emphasized the contribution of alcohol marketing to underage drinking and demonstrated that a substantial portion of alcohol advertising appears in media for thwich the audience is young-oreinted, composed of those age 12-20. This report provides the results of a study that examined the placement of individual radio advertisement for the most advertised U.S. alcohol brands, and the compostion of the auidences in the largest 104 markets in the United States. Programs were grouped according to three levels of youth audience compostion, when the youth listeners represented more than 15% of all listerners, when the proportion of youth listerners exceeds their percentage in the general population. The third level was where the youth market exceeded 30% of the audience, the cut-off point at which the beverage industry has agreed not to advertise. Among the findings were that of all the advertisement, 49% were placed on programming for which the local audience was disproportionately composed of underage youth. In the 15 largest markets, 48% of the advertisement were on programs with disproportionately larege youth audiences, ranging from 24% to 76%. There were differences by brand. Half of the brands approximately half of all the youth exposures were in programs with over the 30% thresholds.

Public Domain

Cook CCH. Conflicts of interest and the common good in alcohol policy and research. (letter). Addiction 100(10): 1555-1556, 2005. (11 refs.)

Cooke E; Hastings G; Wheeler C; Eadie D; Moskalewicz J; Dabrowska K. Marketing of alcohol to young people: A comparison of the UK and Poland. European Addiction Research 10(1): 1-7, 2004. (23 refs.)

This paper takes an international perspective on the marketing of alcohol to young people by examining case studies of the marketing of alcohol in the UK and Poland. It is suggested that marketing is a powerful mechanism for attracting young consumers. The alcohol industry is an innovative industry able to use a wide variety of marketing tools to achieve success in the market-place. It is important to recognise that the marketing activities of the industry are becoming increasingly transnational and that policy response has to be equally transnational.

Donnar R; Jakee K. Australian beer wars and pub demand: how vertical restraints improved the drinking experience. Applied Economics 36(14): 1613-1622, 2004. (31 refs.)

Recently, Australia's two largest brewers, Carlton and United Breweries and Lion Nathan, have been aggressively competing for market share in the state of Victoria. Among other strategies, the two breweries have implemented vertical restraints in the form of 'extensive' agreements with retailers and the outright purchase of pubs. A key outcome of these purchases and agreements is the renovation of many pubs as brewers attempt to attract increasingly sophisticated drinkers. This paper attempts to quantify the value of these renovations and measure their associated impact on consumers, relying on insights from the hedonic literature. A simple, but novel approach, is used to estimate the implicit price of the pub environment and the effects of renovations on that price.

Drummond C. The alcohol industry has a conflict of interest in alcohol research and policy. (letter). Addiction 100(1): 128-129, 2005. (7 refs.)

Edwards G; West R; Babor TF; Hall W; Marsden J. An invitation to an alcohol industry lobby to help decide public funding of alcohol research and professional training: A decision that should be reversed. (editorial). Addiction 99(10): 1235-1236, 2004. (5 refs.)

Gale G. Saving the vine from Phylloxera: A never-ending battle. IN: Sandler M; Pinder R, eds. Wine: A Scientific Exploration. London: Taylor and Francis, Inc., 2003. pp. 70-91. (60 refs.)

This chapter describes the initial appearance and subsequent destruction of vineyards by an insect, phylloxera. it attacks the roots of grape vines, and has descimated vineyards world-wide. It took nearly 7 years after the discovery of the bug, in 1866, for there to be a scientific consesus about the cause of the destruction, the author recounts the initial scientific disagreements and controversy. The insect was transported from the US. The various efforts to counter the bug are described.

Garfield CF; Chung PJ; Rathouz PJ. Alcohol advertising in magazines and adolescent readership. Journal of the American Medical Association 289(18): 2424-2429, 2003. (36 refs.)

Context Adolescent drinking is a major public health concern. The federal government does not restrict alcohol advertising to adolescents, but relies on the alcohol industry for self-regulation. Objectives To investigate recent alcohol advertising in magazines and to determine whether advertising frequency is associated with adolescent readership. Design, Setting, and Subjects All alcohol advertisements were counted that appeared from 1997-2001 in 35 of 48 major US magazines, which tracked their adolescent readership (3 refused all alcohol advertisements; and advertisement counts were unavailable for 10). Variation was assessed in the advertisement placement frequency for each major category of alcohol (beer, wine and wine coolers, and distilled liquor) by a magazine's adolescent readership (age 12-19 years), young adult readership (age 20-24 years), and older adult readership (age greater than or equal to25 years); readership demographics (sex, race, and income); year; frequency of publication; and cost per advertisement. Main Outcome Measure Variation in alcohol advertising frequency by adolescent readership. Results Adolescent readership ranged from 1.0 to 7.1 million. The alcohol industry placed 9148 advertisements at a cost of $696 million. Of the 9148 advertisements, 1201 (13%) were for beer, 443 (5%) for wine, and 7504 (82%) for liquor. After adjustment for other magazine characteristics, the advertisement rate ratio was 1.6 times more for beer (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.0-2.6; P=.05) and liquor (95% CI, 1.1-2.3; P=.01) for every additional million adolescent readers. Wine industry advertising was not associated with adolescent readership. Conclusions Magazine advertising by the beer and liquor industries is associated with adolescent readership. industry and federal policymakers should examine ways to regulate advertising that reaches large numbers of adolescents.

Gruenewald PJ. The spatial ecology of alcohol problems: Niche theory and assortative drinking. Addiction 102(6): 870-878, 2007. (69 refs.)

Aims: This paper summarizes several theoretical perspectives that serve to explain observed associations between concentrations of alcohol outlets and alcohol-related problems. A critique of each perspective discusses how each addresses the social etiology of these problems; that is, how, where and why these problems arise in association with alcohol outlets? Methods: This theoretical work is based upon mathematical and computational models of the ecology of alcohol-related problems developed in the 'Ecosystems Modeling Project', an advanced research project of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, United States. Results Associations between outlets and problems are thought to arise from the concentration of individuals in drinking places ('flow models'), the attraction of some places for people at risk for problems ('gravity models'), or because outlets are located in high-risk neighborhoods and have negative social normative effects ('social contextual models'). None of these approaches explain how some outlets come to have more problems than others (e.g. violent outlets). An alternative social ecological model is introduced which asserts that the complementary processes of niche marketing and assortative drinking form the social dynamic that explains these relationships. Alcohol sellers 'niche market' to select social strata, drinkers return to establishments at which they find people like themselves, and consequent social stratification of the market-place increases the levels of related problems in some outlets. Conclusions: The proposed mechanism is very general, and suggests that over-concentrations of outlets will lead to stratification of drinking groups and intensification of problems related to those outlets.

Gual A. Who is responsible for irresponsible drinking? (commentary). Addiction 99(11): 1376, 2004. (3 refs.)

This is a commentary on an article in this issue ( An addiction agency's collaboration with the industry: Moo Joose as a case study. Addiction, 99, 1370-1374) on the relationship of alcohol beverage industry and policy groups.

Hall WD; Room R. Assessing the wisdom of funding DrinkWise. Medical Journal of Australia 185(11/12): 635-636, 2006. (12 refs.)

This essay questions whether DrinkWise , a goup funded by the Australian government to education the public habout responsible drinking, can truly act independently. While DrinkWise is a putatively independent body, it was originally funded by the alcohol industry, whose representatives occupy six of its 12 board positions. There is reason to be concerned, because the alcohol industry does not have a distinguished track record in reducing alcohol-related harm in Australia. It strenuously opposed the introduction of random breath testing in the 1970s and 1980s,3 because it would reduce alcohol consumption - which it did, and in the process reduced road crash fatalities and injuries. In the early 1990s, the brewers and distillers opposed the innocuous and basic policy of including standard drink labelling on alcohol beverage containers4so that consumers could assess their own alcohol intake. The policies that groups such as this have advocated are generally ineffective.

Hanai S. Structural characteristics and modernization of alcholic beverage production in Japan and China. IN: Umesao T; Yoshida S; Schalow P, eds. Japanese Civilization in the Modern World. XVIII, Alcoholic Beverages. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 64. Osaka Japan: National Museum of Ethnology (Japan), 2003. pp. 17-34. (1 refs.)

This chapter deals with the production of alcoholic beverages in both Japan and China. For both countries the traditional beverages are made with rice, by brewing or distillation. However, while sake of Japan and huangjiu of China are both produced from molded rice, there are differences between in flavor and appearance attributed to the means of storage as well as processing. The governments of both countries, though under different rationales, have initiated control policies. In Japan there was an increase in alcohol consumption which accompanied the period of marked economic growth from 1955-1980. Similarly, in China, increased income which accompanied the end of the Cultural Revolution was accompanied by higher levels of alcohol. Data is provided on the annual production of alcoholic beverages in both countries. There is also discussion of the market price structure which has emerged and the production of different products in both countries. Comparisons are made between shozingjiu and baijiu as well as sake and shochu, as a means of illustrating the changes from a manual to a mass-market economy, and differences in productivity.

Hemphill TA. Alcoholic beverage industry self-regulation and youth advertising: The Federal Trade Commission Report. Business and Society Review 110(3): 321-329, 2005. (20 refs.)

In 1997 and 1998, the U.S. House and Senate Committees on Appropriations jointly requested that the FTC examine the effectiveness of the alcoholic beverage industry's voluntary guidelines for advertising and marketing to underage consumers. the FTC staff reported in its 1999 report, Self-Regulation in the Alcohol Industry: A Review of Industry Efforts to Avoid Promoting Alcohol to Underage Consumers. The annual marketing and advertising investments made by the alcoholic beverage industry to influence consumer behavior are significant. The alcoholic beverage industry is reported to have spent $1.9 billion on alcohol advertising in measured media (television, radio, print, outdoor, major newspapers, and Sunday supplements) in 2002. According to estimates made by the FTC in 1999, the alcoholic beverage industry's total expenditures to promote alcoholic beverages (including sponsorship, Internet advertising, point-of-sale materials, product placement, brand logo items, and other means) were three or more times its expenditures for measured media advertising. (That translated to a total of $5.7 billion or more in 2002.) After a review of internal and public documents related marketing and advertising strategies, the 1999 FTC report found that, while a few members of the industry do not fully comply with their respective code provisions pertaining to advertising content and placement, product placement, online advertising, college marketing, and code enforcement, the industry generally complies with its existing self-regulatory standards. This FTC report endorsed the National Advertising Division of the Council of Better Business Bureaus as a model of advertising self-regulation. The FTC recommended the following: 1) Third-party review: creating an independent external review board with responsibility and authority to address complaints from the public or other industry members. 2) Advertising placement: Raise the current standard that permits advertising placement in media where just over 50 percent of the audience is 21 or older, and members should be able to demonstrate their compliance with the higher standard. 3) Best prevailing practices: adopting enforcement policies that go beyond minimum code requirements. In March 2003, conferees of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees directed the FTC to (1) study the impact on underage consumers of advertisements for new flavored malt beverages (FMBs) called �alcopops,� which were orst marketed in the late 1990s, and (2) determine whether the alcoholic beverage industry had implemented all of the recommendations made by the FTC in its 1999 report regarding improved alcoholic beverage industry self-regulation that limits the appeal and exposure of alcohol beverage advertising to underage consumers. The FTC staff reviewed whether these were placed among non-alcoholic beverages in retail outlets; whether the advertising for these products were targeted to an underage audience; and whether consumer survey evidence proved that teens were more likely than adults to be aware of and use these products, as alleged in complaint from the Center for Science in the Public Interest. In its report, Alcohol Marketing and Advertising (2003), the FTC reported finding no evidence of intent to target minors with the flavord malt bverages. In its review of the beverage industry's efforts at industry self-regulation, the FTC found that some members of the industry had taken modest steps, but that more could be done.

Herd D. Changes in the prevalence of alcohol use in rap song lyrics, 1979-97. Addiction 100(9): 1258-1259, 2005. (46 refs.)

Aims: This paper explores the role of changing images of drinking and alcoholic beverage use in rap music from its beginnings in the United States in the late 1970s to the late 1990s. Design: A sample of 341 rap music song lyrics released from 1979 to 1997 were selected using Billboard and Gavin rating charts. Song lyrics were coded for music genres, alcohol beverage types and brand names, drinking behaviors, drinking contexts, intoxication, attitudes towards alcohol and consequences of drinking. Findings: From 1979 to 1997, songs with references to alcohol increased fivefold (from 8 to 44%); those exhibiting positive attitudes rose from 43% to 73%; and brand name mentions increased from 46% to 71%. There were also significant increases in songs mentioning champagne and liquor (mainly expensive brand names) when comparing songs released after 1994 with those from previous years. In addition, there were significant increases in references to alcohol to signify glamour and wealth, and using alcohol with drugs and for recreational purposes. The findings also showed that alcohol use in rap music was much more likely to result in positive than negative consequences. Conclusions: Many of these findings are consistent with the idea that rap music has been profoundly affected by commercial forces and the marketing of alcoholic beverages. In addition, it is possible that the increase in references to alcoholic beverages in rap music, particularly spirits, is a reflection of a broader advertising culture which increasingly associates African Americans with alcohol use.

Jahiel RI; Babor TF. Industrial epidemics, public health advocacy and the alcohol industry: lessons from other fields. (editorial). Addiction 102(9): 1335-1339, 2007. (55 refs.)

Jernigan D. The need for restraint. (editorial). Addiction 102(11): 1747-1748, 2007. (10 refs.)

This is a commentary on the article "Young Australians and alcohol: the acceptabllity of ready-to-drink (RTD) alcoholic beverages among 12-30-year-olds." Ready-to-drink beverages include beverages that often are mixed with soft drinks and thereby disguise the taste of alcohol that is often unpleasant to early drinkers.

Jernigan D; O'Hara J. Advertising and promotion. IN: Committee on Developing a Strategy to Reduce and Prevent Underage Drinking; Bonnie RJ; O'Connell ME, eds. Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility. Washington DC: National Academies Press, 2004. pp. 625-653. (75 refs.)

This chapter begins with a brief summary of the shape and trends in the alcohol market in the United States, with particular attention to youth consumption. In 2001, Americans paid more than $135 billion for alcoholic beverages. The advertising budget was around $4 billion in 2001. Of this, under half -- 1.57 billion -- was in the traditional measured media -- television, radio, print, and outdoor. the remainder is spent on "non-traditional" advertising, such as promotions, sponsorships, point-of-sale materials, product placement. With sales essentially flat for two decades, increasingly attention is directed to expanding the market, encourage drinkers to switch brands or increase consumption, as well as persuading nondrinkers to begin drinking. Adolescents and young adults are a target. This chapter describes the nature and trends in alcohol marketing, with particular attention to young people. The paper concludes with a discussion of public policy needs.

Jernigan DH; Ostroff J; Ross CS; Naimi TS; Brewer RD. Youth Exposure to Alcohol Advertising in Magazines --- United States, 2001--2005. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 56(30): 763-767, 2007. (10 refs.)

This report describes the first study of alcohol advertising in magazines since the trade associations for the beer and liquor industries adopted and implemented a new standard in which they agreed to restrict advertising in media in which the youth audience composition exceeds 30%. The surveillance system used in this report is the only independent source of brand- and company-specific data regarding youth exposure to alcohol marketing and has been used to document levels of youth exposure to alcohol advertising in magazines by sex. The placement of advertisements in the nine publications with >30% youth readership decreased approximately 90% during 2001--2005; however, almost 45% of alcohol advertisements were still placed in magazines with a disproportionately large youth readership (i.e., >15%). Furthermore, advertisements in magazines with >15% youth readership accounted for approximately 80% of all youth exposure to alcohol advertising in magazines overall. Of the 201 alcohol brands advertised in magazines in 2005, a total of 36 brands placed all of their advertising in magazines with >15% youth readership, 38 brands placed more than half of their advertising in these magazines, 39 had half or less of their advertising in these magazines, and 88 brands had no advertising in these magazines (listing of brands available at http://www.camy.org). These data indicate that although alcohol companies have modified their advertising practices to meet >30% target thresholds, youth exposure to alcohol advertising would be further reduced if these companies followed the NRC/IOM recommendation and did not advertise in magazines in which youth readership exceeds 15%. It is noted too, that although alcohol advertising in magazines decreased from 2001 to 2005, alcohol advertising on television increased 41% for youth and 48% for adults during this same period (9). This increase is largely attributable to increased advertising by liquor producers on cable television programs, which are more likely than broadcast television program to have disproportionately large youth audiences (9). The Distilled Spirits Council of the United States changed its voluntary marketing practices code in 1996 to allow television advertising.

Public Domain

Jones SC; Lynch M. Non-advertising alcohol promotions in licensed premises: Does the Code of Practice ensure responsible promotion of alcohol? Drug and Alcohol Review 26(5): 477-485, 2007. (34 refs.)

Introduction and Aims. Binge drinking is a major public health issue in Australia, particularly among young people. There has been a considerable focus on alcohol advertising, among both researchers and policy makers, resulting in efforts to bring about some level of regulation of unacceptable advertising practices. However-despite the existence of a Code of Practice for Responsible Promotion of Liquor Products which provides 'a framework of practices which are considered acceptable and reasonable for licensed premises-there are few, if any, data on the nature and extent of promotions which could arguably fall under either 'acceptable' or 'unacceptable' practices. Design and Methods. Over an 8-week period we monitored promotions offered by licensed venues (pubs, bars and clubs) in the Wollongong central area. Seventeen venues were identified, and each venue was visited daily for I week. Trained research assistants took notes on all promotions/events in visited venues, including both manufacturer- and management-initiated. Results. We identified a range of different types of promotions, including low cost and free drinks. Some of the promotions identified could be seen to have a positive public health impact, such as free food and free transport. However, the majority of promotions were of a nature likely to increase the likelihood of excessive drinking. Discussion and Conclusions. It is evident from this review that there are numerous examples of promotions which breach both the spirit and the letter of the Code. It is equally evident that the system for monitoring compliance with the Code is fundamentally inadequate.

Karlsson T; Osterberg E; Tigerstedt C. Developing border regions, regulating alcohol in the Nordic countries. Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 22(English Supplement): 102-114, 2005. (23 refs.)

In the last decade there has been a marked shift in Nordic alcohol policy towards questions of cross-border trade and cross-country pice differences. This is the result of ongoing efforts in the EU to create a common market without fiscal barriers, which led to an eroison of Danish, Finnish, and Swedish exemptions to rules on the impart of alcohol for personal use. Sweden has found itself with a southern border described as a "seive." It has been suggested that taxes on spirts be slashed by 40% and on beer by 30%. Paradoxically, while concern is expressed over the alcohol issue, parallel efforts are underway to unify the Denmark-Swedish economy and facilitate cross-border travel by enhancing ease of travel. The nature of travel in different points of crossing is described for the Oresnd region, Svinesund area, and Helsinki-Tallin. Price differential in alcohol prices remains and is a primary purchase for Swedish and Finnish travelers.

Kuo M; Wechsler H; Greenber P; Lee H. The marketing of alcohol to college students: The role of low prices and special promotions. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 25(3): 204-211, 2003. (40 refs.)

Heavy episodic or binge drinking has been recognized as a major problem on American college campuses affecting the health, safety, and education of students. The present study examines the alcohol environment surrounding college campuses and assesses the impact on students' drinking. This environment includes alcohol promotions, price specials, and advertising at drinking establishments that serve beer for on-premise consumption as well as retail outlets that sell beer for off-premise consumption. Methods: The study used student self-report data from the 2001 College Alcohol Study (CAS) and direct observational assessments by trained observers who visited alcohol establishments in communities where the participating colleges were located. The analytic sample included more than 10,000 students as well as 830 on-premise and 1684 off-premise establishments at 118 colleges. Results: Alcohol specials, promotions, and advertisements were prevalent in the alcohol outlets around college campuses. Almost three quarters of on-premise establishments offered specials on weekends, and almost one half of the on-premise establishments and more than 60% of off-premise establishments provided at least one type of beer promotion. The availability of large volumes of alcohol (24- and 30-can cases of beer, kegs, party balls), low sale prices, and frequent promotions and advertisements at both on- and off-premise establishments were associated with higher binge drinking rates on the college campuses. In addition, an overall measure of on- and off-premise establishments was positively associated with the total number of drinks consumed. Conclusions: The regulation of marketing practices such as sale prices, promotions, and advertisements may be important strategies to reduce binge drinking and its accompanying problems.

Lemaire J. Unmixing a jurisprudential cocktail: Reconciling the twenty-first amendment, the dormant Commerce Clause, and federal appellate jurisprudence to judge the constitutionality of state laws restricting direct shipment of alcohol. Notre Dame Law Review 79(4): 1613-1674, 2004. (401 legal refs.)

Most states place some type of restriction on the ability of consumers to order liquor and have it shipped to their homes. If states attempted to place such restrictions on commerce in lobsters or video games or virtually any other product, the courts would not hesitate to strike down those restrictions. The issue of state imposed restrictions on commerce is more complicated when commerce in alcoholic beverages is involved. Section 2 of the Twenty-First Amendment to the Constitution provides: "The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited." Its quirks have been documented, but does it authorize the states to forbid the direct shipment of liquor to consumers? This issue has become important in recent years because of the rapid growth of the American wine industry. There are more than 2000 domestic wineries in the United States, up from just 375 in 1963. Due to their size, such wineries often find it difficult or even impossible to sell their wares through traditional state distribution channels. The Internet, however, provides a convenient connection between wineries and their potential customers. Unfortunately, state direct-shipment prohibitions often get in the way. Wineries and wine lovers have challenged state direct-shipment laws in the courts, claiming that such laws restrain commerce to a degree not allowed by the dormant Commerce Clause. This Note attempts to sort out this issue in light of current law. Part I examines how alcohol regulation has developed in the United States, which contributes to an understanding of how state regulation of alcohol has long been considered "different." Part II traces the development of contemporary Supreme Court jurisprudence in the area of alcohol regulation and the Twenty-First Amendment. Part III reviews the five recent circuit court of appeals decisions regarding the validity of state direct-shipment laws. Finally, Part IV takes crucial principles from the Supreme Court and circuit court of appeals decisions and attempts to mold them into a clear understanding about when state direct-shipment laws are valid and when they are not. This Note concludes that nondiscriminatory direct-shipment laws are a valid part of the states' right to structure their own alcohol distribution systems while discriminatory direct-shipment laws are presumed to have an improper, protectionist purpose and are invalid unless the state can affirmatively justify them.

Lieberman B. The power of positive drinking: Are alcoholic beverage health claims constitutionally protected? Food and Drug Law Journal 58: 511-520, 2003. (81 legal refs.)

The Competitive Enterprise Institute's (CEI's) 1996 lawsuit challenging the federal government's policy regarding alcoholic beverage health claims was dismissed, without prejudice, on procedural grounds. See CEI v. O'Neill, No. 96-2476 (D.D.C. June 18, 2001), appeal dismissed, CEI v. O'Neill, No. 01-5241, 2002 WL 1359478 (D.C. Cir. May 10, 2002). Summary: It seems almost too good to be true that moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages substantially reduces one's risk of contracting heart disease, but a wealth of published studies have shown it to be an accurate statement. ... In its 1993 Industry Circular, entitled Health Claims in the Labeling and Advertising of Alcoholic Beverages, ATF conceded that "there is currently a growing body of scientific research and other data that seems to provide evidence that lower levels of drinking decrease the risk of death from coronary artery disease." ... ATF sponsored a survey, conducted by DHHS' Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP), which tested the consumer impact of the proposed directional statements, including whether they would confuse consumers about the risks of drinking or obfuscate the message in the mandatory health warning statement. ... The agency conceded that "the regulations make it difficult to present a substantive health claim (for example, one involving cardiovascular benefits associated with moderate alcohol consumption) on an alcohol beverage label, because of the level of qualification and explanation that would be necessary to set forth the risks associated with such consumption." ... The agency has not demonstrated, to the satisfaction of First Amendment commercial speech scrutiny, that such health statements are misleading absent the now-mandated disclaimers.

Lopes TD. Competing with multinationals: Strategies of the Portuguese alcohol industry. (review). Business History Review 79(3): 559-585, 2005. (115 refs.)

This study looks at the formation of multinationals and relates that process to the emergence of institutions favorable to economic growth. It compares the development of such institutions from 1960 in four European countries: the United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands, and Portugal. The focus of the study is a global industry-alcoholic beverages-in which brands, marketing knowledge, and distribution channels have been critical. In order to understand why some nations succeed in developing multinationals and others do not, different views of the determinants of national wealth, such as trade, institutions and organizations, and corporate governance, are examined. Whereas three of the countries developed leading multinationals in alcoholic beverages, Portugal did not succeed in doing so. The study concludes that, in marketing-based industries, both the type of product and the institutional environment influence the ability of firms to become leading multinationals.

Maher A; Wilson N; Signal L; Thomson G. Patterns of sports sponsorship by gambling, alcohol and food companies: An Internet survey. BMC Public Health 6: article 95, 2006. (18 refs.)

Background: Sports sponsorship is a significant marketing tool. As such, it can promote products that pose risks to health (eg, high fat and high sugar foods) or it can promote health-supporting products ( eg, sporting equipment and services). However, there is a lack of data on the proportion of sponsorship associated with "unhealthy" and "healthy" products and no methodology for systematically assessing it. This research aimed to explore this proportion with an Internet survey of sports sponsorship in the New Zealand setting. Methods: A search methodology was developed to identify Internet-based evidence of sports sponsorship at the national level and at the regional and club level in one specific region ( Wellington). The top eight sports for 5-17-year-olds were selected and products and services of sponsors were classified in terms of potential public health impact ( using a conservative approach). Results: Sponsorship of these popular sports was common at the national, regional and club levels ( 640 sponsors listed on 107 websites overall). Sports sponsorship associated with sponsors' products classified as "unhealthy" ( eg, food high in fat and sugar, gambling and alcohol) were over twice as common as sponsorship associated with sponsors' products classified as "healthy" (32.7% (95% CI = 29.1, 36.5) versus 15.5% ( 95% CI = 12.8, 18.6) respectively). "Gambling" was the most common specific type of sponsorship (18.8%) followed by alcohol (11.3%). There were significantly more "alcohol" sponsors for rugby, compared to all the other sports collectively ( rate ratio (RR) = 2.47; 95% CI = 1.60, 3.79), and for top male sports compared to female ( RR = 1.83; 95% CI = 1.05, 3.18). Also there was significantly more "unhealthy food" sponsorship for touch rugby and for "junior" teams/clubs compared to other sports collectively ( RR = 6.54; 95% CI = 2.07, 20.69; and RR = 14.72, 95% CI = 6.22, 34.8; respectively). A validation study gave an inter-rater reliability for number of sponsors of 95% (n = 87 sponsors), and an inter-rater reliability of classification and categorisation of 100%. Conclusion: This study found that the sponsorship of popular sports for young people is dominated by "unhealthy" sponsorship ( ie, predominantly gambling, alcohol and unhealthy food) relative to "healthy" sponsorship. Governments may need to consider regulations that limit unhealthy sponsorship and/or adopt alternative funding mechanisms for supporting popular sports.

Mbona NT; Kasirye R. Gender and major consequences of alcohol consumption in Uganda. IN: Obot IS; Room R, eds. Alcohol, Gender and Drinking Problems: Perspectives from Low and Middle Income Countries. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2005. pp. 189-208. (23 refs.)

Alcohol use though not formally documented is widely accepted. There is no clear alcohol policy, commercial sale of traditionally produced spirits is regulate but outdated and not enforced. The chapter begins with a discussion of alcocol production. There are a number of national breweries. However, informal alcohol production is common and the source of revenue for families. The chapter then adresses consumption. A national surevy shows that 25% of women and half of men consumed alcohol is the prior month. Of those who drank, 25% of women and half of men got drunk at least once in that period. High alcohol consumption is attributed by some to political instability, unemployment as well as culture, which defines excessive drinking as part of life and a duty. Men who abstain are unrespected and virility is suspect. Other sugest that the reverse is true, with drinking contributing to poverty. Other consequences of alcohol use are an increased risk of HIV, and family disruption, and increased domestic violence. The GENASIS study and its findings are reviewed. Men are over 3 times as likely to be heavy drinkers, 23% versus 6.5%. Men were most likely to drink with friends and workmates; for women it was family and friends. Among current drinkers for both men and women, financial problems were the most commonly cited problem. Two-thirds of all drinkers reported an alcohol related problem in the past year.

McGee R; Ketchel J/Reeder AI. Alcohol imagery on New Zealand television. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy 2: article 6, 2007. (21 refs.)

Background: To examine the extent and nature of alcohol imagery on New Zealand (NZ) television, a content analysis of 98 hours of prime-time television programs and advertising was carried out over 7 consecutive days' viewing in June/July 2004. The main outcome measures were number of scenes in programs, trailers and advertisements depicting alcohol imagery; the extent of critical versus neutral and promotional imagery; and the mean number of scenes with alcohol per hour, and characteristics of scenes in which alcohol featured. Results: There were 648 separate depictions of alcohol imagery across the week, with an average of one scene every nine minutes. Scenes depicting uncritical imagery outnumbered scenes showing possible adverse health consequences of drinking by 12 to 1. Conclusion: The evidence points to a large amount of alcohol imagery incidental to storylines in programming on NZ television. Alcohol is also used in many advertisements to market non-alcohol goods and services. More attention needs to be paid to the extent of alcohol imagery on television from the industry, the government and public health practitioners. Health education with young people could raise critical awareness of the way alcohol imagery is presented on television.

Mosher JF; Johnsson D. Flavored alcoholic beverages: An international marketing campaign that targets youth. Journal of Public Health Policy 26(3): 326-342, 2005. (37 refs.)

Flavored alcoholic beverages (FABs) were first introduced into the alcohol market in the early 1980s in the form of wine coolers. FABs are sweet, relatively low alcohol content beverages that are designed for "entry-level" drinkers. The alcohol industry has introduced new products and production methods to expand the category's popularity. Research suggests that they are popular with underage drinkers, particularly teenage girls, and that the industry uses marketing practices that appear to target youth. FABs are now marketed globally, and their production and marketing vary by country based on national regulatory restraints. In the United States, industry representations that the products are malt beverages for regulatory purposes appears to violate many state laws because the alcohol in the FABs is derived from distilled spirits. Recommendations for regulatory reform, including new legal definitions of FABs, increased taxes, and restrictions on availability, are applicable at both national and state levels.

Muller R; Klingemann H, eds. From Science to Action? 100 years later - Alcohol Policies Revisited. London: Springer, 2004. (Chapter refs.)

The papers incorporated were drawn from a meeting celebrating the 100th anniversary of the Swiss Institute for the Prevention of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems. The book includes a 'smargardsbord' of 15 papers that cover various aspects of alcohol policy. The volume is organized into five sections: International perspective, history, action, the ethics and politics of policies, and in conclusion, Swiss alcohol policy over the last century. Among the subjects discussed are the relationship of alcohol policy to the public good, alcohol policy in the European Union, a review of harm reduction and its objectives, and historical review of alcohol policies in industrial countries. There is also discussion of the relationship of price decrease and spirits consumption, the relationship of consumption levels and drunkenness in different countries, as well as a commentary on the increasing influence of the alcohol industry, the resistance to policies that might decrease sales and support of educational programs with little impact.

Munro G. An addiction agency's collaboration with the drinks industry: Moo Joose as a case study. Addiction 99(11): 1370-1374, 2004. (31 refs.)

Aim: This paper analyses a partnership between an addiction agency and the drinks industry in Australia, with special reference to concerns held by public health advocates for such projects. Method: Public health anxieties regarding collaboration between the drugs sector and the drinks industry are identified. A projected partnership between the Alcohol and Drug Foundation Queensland (ADFQ) and the liquor industry in Australia is reviewed. The partnership involves the creation of a new organization, Alcohol Education Australia Ltd. (AEA), which states as its aim the education of consumers in responsible drinking. In order to assess the impact of the partnership an examination is undertaken of the AEA's stated mission and objectives, of relevant policy development by ADFQ and of ADFQ's intervention in support of an alcohol manufacturer which was putting a case to a licensing authority. Findings: The results indicate the partnership advances the interests of the drinks industry rather than public health. The mission and objectives of Alcohol Education Australia Ltd subordinate public health goals to industry aims and the host organization, the ADFQ, has changed its policy and practice to accommodate the drinks industry. Conclusion: The partnership between the ADFQ and the drinks industry indicates the difficulty faced by addiction organizations in maintaining an uncompromising public health orientation when in partnership with the alcohol industry.

Munro G. Drinks industry organizations should carry warning labels: A brief reply to commentaries. Addiction 99(11): 1380, 2004. (7 refs.)

This is a response to commentaries on the author's article published in this issue: An addiction agency's collaboration with the drinks industry: Moo Joose as a case study. The case study highlights the tensions inherent in collaborations between the beverage industry and community substance abuse agencies.

Munro G. Establishment of a Moo Joose archive. (letter). Addiction 100(5): 716, 2005. (2 refs.)

Note: Moo Joose, was a "nontraditional" beverage - alcoholic milk - that was proposed for sale in Australia. The manufacturer, Wicked Holdings Pty Ltd, envisioned a beverage containing more than 5% alcohol by volume, to be available in flavors of chocolate, banana, strawberry and coffee and mimic flavored milk. The following were set forth as positive features: (a 'Milk with its component proteins is likely to produce feelings of satiation that may limit the amount consumed; (b) It is possible that the milk content may reduce the rate of absorption of alcohol into the walls of the stomach and small intestine and act like food in delaying the rate of absorption; (c) 'The fact that the fat content is low is likely to make more attractive (sic) to young women . . . Low sugar levels are also an attraction to young women in the 18 + age group. Also mentioned as positive features of Moo Joose were its proposed four-pack packaging which would supposedly foster moderation, as well as narrow-necked bottles with screw tops that would minimize the chances of other person's spiking the drink. Among those speaking on Moo Joose's behalf was a major Australian substance abuse group. The Alcohol & Drug Foundation, explained its support for Moo Joose by noting that any incidental alcohol problems would be more than offset by declines in drinking it envisioned as resulting from an anticipated prevention campaign it would be conducting jointly with the beverage industry. The licensing group was unconvinced by these arguments and Wicked Holding's application was denied, on the basis that it represented an unacceptable risk to the health and well-being of young people. Amaong the questions this case haved evoked is the potential for problems in "any" beverage industry and substance abuse field collaboration.

Murie A; Solomon R. The alcohol industry: Friend or foe in the fight against impaired driving. "A MADD Perspective". Glasgow: ICADTS, 2004. (26 refs.)

The alcohol industry has been a major obstacle to making significant progress in fighting drinking and driving. While MADD has no problems with the industry's focus on pursuing profits or sponsoring bonafide research. MADD Canada's perspective changes when the alcohol industry purports to be committed to reducing impaired driving and yet offers "solutions" that will have little positive impact and when it opposes measures that research indicates would have major traffic safety benefits. As with the tobacco industry, the alcohol industry provides little research in support of its proposals. This paper illustrates the industry's approach by reference to its support for social norming and its opposition to lowering the BAC limit for driving. MADD is not opposed to working with the industry, but only if it is willing to tackle real problems in the impaired driving field. There is no accompanying PowerPoint presentation.

National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse; Foster SE; Vaughan R. The Economic Value of Underage and Adult Excessive Drinking to the Alcohol Industry. New York: National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, 2003. (45 refs.)

This report is based on an analysis conducted by Foster and other Center fellows and published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in February 2003. It examined the impact of excessive and underage drinking for the beverage industry. This study found that underage drinking accounts for 19.7 percent of the alcohol consumed in the U.S. and adult excessive drinking accounts for another 30.4 percent. Together, that is 50.1 percent of the alcohol consumed in the U.S. and 49 percent of consumer expenditures for alcohol in 1999 (the most recent year for which necessary data was available. The alcohol consumed by underage drinking represented $22.5 billion of the total $116.2 billion spent for all forms of alcohol. To reduce underage and excessive drinking would reduce the amount spent on alcohol by almost half, $56.9 billion. This suggests that there insurmountable conflict of interests for the beverage industry to "battle" underage drinking. As a consequence the Center is calling for increased governmental efforts as well as efforts by parents and the community to address this. In addition to the data collected, there are also statements by public figures calling on the beverage industry to introduce changes as well as endow a private independent foundation that can address underage drinking.

Olasupo NA; Obayori OS. Utilization of palm wine (Elaeis guineensis) for the improved production of Nigerian indigenous alcoholic drink: Ogogoro. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 27(5): 365-372, 2003. (17 refs.)

A strategy to produce a Nigerian indigenous alcoholic drink (Ogogoro)from palm wine using a modification of the traditional method was investigated. Modifications adopted include temperature monitoring during distillation, airtightness of the production system and improved cooling system for better condensation and product recovery. The fermenting palm wine was monitored for changes in pH, acidity and sugar content at 24 h intervals during the 5 days of fermentation. pH progressively decreased from an initial pH of 7.3 to 3.5 at the end of the fermentation. The initial percentage acidity was 0.42, which increased to 0.83 on the fifth day. Sugar content decreased significantly from an initial 12% to 4% on the fifth day. The ogogoro had an alcoholic content of 55%. Though sensory evaluation rated the ogogoro very acceptable, significant differences (P < 0.01) exist between the ogogoro and the commercial alcoholic drink. This research manuscript highlights the potential of traditional methods for possible adaptation in industrial production of high alcoholic drinks in the Nigerian environment.

Raistrick D. The United Kingdom: Alcohol today. (commentary). Addiction 100(9): 1212-1214, 2005. (19 refs.)

The United Kingdom is ninth of 14 leading European Union countries in the per capita consumption league table but second only to Germany as a producer of beers. Some 1.47 million people are employed in licensed retailing and related industries [1]. The number of fully licensed premises, public houses and hotels has remained fairly steady in recent years at around 88 000 [1]. The public enjoy eating out and drinking as a prime leisure activity and in 2003 spent �74 766 on alcohol every minute of the year, generating �13 477 million in revenue, 4.5% of the total, for the Treasury [1]. The per capita consumption of alcohol in the United Kingdom has increased from 6.6 l per head in 1973 to 9.1 l in 2003 [1], which is reflected in the 2002 General Household Survey [2] as 27% of men and 17% of women drinking over safer weekly limits (21 and 14 units) and 7% and 3% drinking over dangerous limits (50 and 35 units). Best estimates for England and Wales are of at least 7 million hazardous or harmful and at least 1 million dependent drinkers. The cost of alcohol-related harm has been estimated at up to �1.7 billion to the health service, accounting for between 11 300 and 17 900 deaths due to chronic disease, up to �7.3 billion attributable to crime and public disorder and up to �6.4 billion in costs to the economy [3]. There are other costs that are difficult to quantify, notably the impact on children, the dysfunction of families and the despair experienced by individuals. The total costs may reach �20 billion or, viewed another way, �6 billion more than income. This editorial discusses the tensions in the United Kingdom in the creation of alcohol policy, differences across the UK, the role of the Portman Group (an industry advocate) as a key player, and the tendency to discount experiences of other countries.

Room R. Disabling the public interest: Alcohol strategies and policies for England. (editorial). Addiction 99(9): 1083-1089, 2004. (32 refs.)

In March 2004, two important documents on alcohol policy were published by the British government. One is an Alcohol Harm Reduction Strategy for England (UK Cabinet Office 2004). This document has received more attention, but is arguably of less import. As we shall see, what it offers is a recipe for ineffectiveness at the national level. The second document, the kind which only a lawyer could love, is entitled Draft Guidance issued under Section 182 of the Licensing Act 2003 (UK Ministry of Culture, Media & Sport 2004). The consequences of this document are likely to be much more serious for public health and safety, as it is intended to eviscerate any possibility of effective action on alcohol issues at the local level. In the same month, then, the Blair government has managed to accomplish not only a missed chance at the national level but also a thoroughgoing neutralization of local powers to control the alcohol market in the interests of public health and safety. Much of the problem is seen as undue involvement and influence by the beverage industry. Note: There are six commentaries on this article.

Room R. International control of alcohol: Alternative paths forward. Drug and Alcohol Review 25(6): 581-595, 2006. (44 refs.)

Alcohol was the first psychoactive substance to be subject to international control, but these agreements between colonial powers have long since fallen away. In the wake of the entry into force of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), paths forward for international control of alcohol are considered. The choices embedded in the FCTC are discussed, and the justifications for a parallel convention for alcohol considered. An alternative would be scheduling alcohol under one or more of the international drug conventions, most probably the 1971 convention, although the convention would have to be amended to allow use outside 'medical and scientific purposes' and without a prescription regime. In considering potential contents of an alcohol convention, it is noted that both the FCTC and the drug conventions are concerned at least as much with domestic markets as with international trade.

Sandler M; Pinder R, eds. Wine: A Scientific Exploration. London: Taylor and Francis, Inc., 2003. (806 book refs.)

The science of wine, its protective medical effects, and its making are discussed. The authors note that wine has been made since Neolithic times. The beneficial effects of wine were also well known by the ancients. Modern issues were first noted in 1979 with the publication of a paper related to the relationship between cardiac mortality and the consumption of wine. The authors suggest that red wines, particularly Merlot and Pinot Noir, may have greater protective effect than white wines, perhaps as a result of higher concentrations of polyphenols in the reds. Chapter headings in this volume include: (1) drinking wine; (2) the history of wine as a medicine; (3) archaeology and the origins of wine production; (4) saving the vine from Phylloxera: a never-ending battle; (5) wine and heart disease: a statistical approach; (6) wine, alcohol and cardiovascular diseases; (7) wine flavonoids, LDL cholesterol oxidation and atherosclerosis; (8) resveratrol: biochemistry, cell biology and the potential role in disease prevention; (9) grape-derived wine flavonoids and stilbenes; (10) modern biotechnology of winemaking; (11) the identity and parentage of wine grapes; (12) wine and migraine; (13) wine: protective in macular degeneration; and (14) antimicrobial effects of wine. Many figures and tables are included.

Sharma M. Corporate social responsibility and alcohol: The need and potential for partnership. (editorial). Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 49(4): 85-88, 2005. (4 refs.)

Smith SW; Atkin CK; Roznowski J. Are "drink responsibly" alcohol campaigns strategically ambiguous? Health Communication 20(1): 1-11, 2006. (41 refs.)

This article applies the concept of strategic ambiguity in examining viewer responses to brewer-sponsored "responsible drinking" television advertising campaigns. Strategically ambiguous messages are designed to engender diverse interpretations between varied audience segments, and these different selective perceptions should translate into relatively uniform positive corporate images. In this study, teenage and young adult respondents were shown a series of television spots from two leading alcohol companies. As predicted, there was a high degree of diversity in meanings of message content and campaign purpose derived by viewers, particularly among less sophisticated teenagers. Moreover, evaluative ratings of messages and sponsors were generally favorable and more uniform than interpretive responses. The research demonstrates how seemingly prohealth messages can serve to subtly advance both industry sales and public relations interests.

Solomon R; Chamberlain E; Murie A. The alcohol industry: Friend or foe in the fight against impaired driving. Glasgow: ICADTS, 2004. (26 refs.)

This paper considers the relationship between Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) Canada and the alcohol beverage industry. While not a prohibitionist organization, MADD is concerned about general alcohol policies that may have an impact of impaired driving. In respect to policy issues, an important factor was advocacy of specific impaired driving countermeasures including a BAC of 0.05% BAC. The role of the beverage industry in lobbying for alcohol policy in Canada is reviewed. The industry also funds a variety of organization that address social aspects of alcohol consumption. While ostensibly focused on research and education, they exist to further the industry's interests, e.g. challenging research and policies that are perceived to be threatening. The limitations of the "responsible drinking" campaigns are noted, as well as the "educational packages" developed for the schools. This is followed by a discussion of those arrested for impaired driving. Contrary to many stereotypes, there are a number of "social drinkers" who drink to excess and drive. In light of this the paper focuses on the proposed change to the criminal code setting 0.05% as the definition of impairment, and which pits MADD against the beverage industry.

Teret SP; Michaelis AP. Litigating for Native American health: The liability of alcoholic beverage makers and distributors. Journal of Public Health Policy 26(2): 246-259, 2005. (20 refs.)

Native American populations have long experienced excess morbidity and mortality attributable to alcohol. Historically, alcohol was introduced to the Native American population by European settlers, and was used to help those settlers get land and goods from the Indian population. In modern times, alcohol beverage makers and distributors continue to supply and market their products to Native American populations in amounts and manners that contribute to continuing health and safety problems. When some other products have been over-supplied or over-promoted to the detriment of the public's health, litigation has been brought against the makers or dealers of those products, sometimes using the legal theory of public nuisance. This article explores the potential for litigation brought by Native Americans against alcoholic beverage makers and distributors.

Terry-McElrath YN; Harwood EM; Wagenaar AC; Slater S; Chaloupka FJ; Brewer RD et al. Point-of-purchase alcohol marketing and promotion by store type. United States, 2000-2001. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 52(14): 310-313, 2003. (10 refs.)

Alcohol consumption is the third leading preventable cause of death in the United States, accounting for approximately 100,000 deaths annually. Recent studies have focused on alcohol marketing as a potentially important contributor to alcohol consumption, particularly among underage drinkers (3). Point-of-purchase (POP) (i.e., on-site) marketing, including alcohol advertising and placement, can increase alcohol sales and consumption substantially, thereby increasing the risk for various alcohol-related health outcomes, including alcohol-impaired driving and interpersonal violence (5--7). To assess the type and frequency of POP alcohol marketing. This report summarizes the results of a study that collected and analyzed store observation data during 2000-2001 from 3,961 alcohol retailers in 329 communities throughout the United States. The data suggest that point of purchase marketing is extensive in certain story types frequented by teenagers and young adults. In each alcohol retail establishment, field staff observed the presence of various POP alcohol marketing characteristics in a standardized manner, including 1) exterior and interior advertisements for alcoholic beverages and the intensity of such advertising, 2) alcohol beverage control signage (e.g., health warnings), 3) alcohol-branded functional objects provided free to retailers (e.g., counter change mats with an alcohol company logo), 4) beer placement (e.g., single cans or bottles chilled in buckets near checkout locations) or not chilled on shelf), and 5) the presence of low-height advertisements (i.e., advertisements placed within 3.5 feet of the floor, in the sight line of children and adolescents as opposed to adults). The majority of stores (94%) had some form of POP alcohol marketing (i.e., store exterior, store interior, and/or parking lot or other property advertising and/or alcohol-branded functional objects). Exterior alcohol advertisements were observed in 39% of stores ; 27% of stores had high-intensity exterior advertising�. Compared with supermarkets, liquor stores (odds ratio [OR] = 176.8), convenience stores (OR = 48.2), convenience/gas stores (OR = 42.3), small grocery stores (OR = 24.5), and drug stores/pharmacies (OR = 15.5) were more likely to have high-intensity exterior alcohol advertising. Interior alcohol advertisements were observed in 92% of stores, and 37% of stores had high-intensity interior advertising�. Liquor stores (OR = 18.5), convenience/gas stores (OR = 4.8), convenience stores (OR = 3.9), and small grocery stores (OR = 3.5) were more likely than supermarkets to have high-intensity interior advertisements. Low-height advertisements were found in 44% of stores. Low-height advertising was more common in liquor stores (OR = 5.1) and in convenience/gas stores (OR = 2.2) than in supermarkets. Less than half (48%) of the stores in the sample had alcohol control or counter-alcohol signage, with no statistically significant differences by store type. Approximately half (51%) of the stores provided at least one alcohol-branded functional object. These objects were more likely to be in liquor stores (OR = 4.2), convenience stores (OR = 1.8), and small grocery stores (OR = 2.0) than in supermarkets . Among all types of stores, beer was located most commonly in coolers (96%), in floor displays (44%), on shelves (23%), and as singles in ice buckets (16%). Single beers in ice buckets, located most often near checkout locations, were most likely to be found in convenience stores (27%), convenience/gas stores (18%), and small grocery stores (27%). Shelf displays of beer were most common in supermarkets (47%) and drug stores (43%); 1% of stores placed beer behind a counter or in a closed or locked cabinet. This is significant because POP marketing can increase total beer sales by as much as 17% and influences consumer purchase behavior, with 70% of a buyer's purchasing choice occurring after the buyer enters the retail establishment. Persons aged 21--27 years are more likely to purchase beer in convenience stores and liquor stores than in supermarkets and drug stores, and 75% of teenagers shop at convenience or convenience/gas stores weekly. Therefore, aggressive POP marketing in convenience and liquor stores might influence young adults, underage persons, and adolescents disproportionately. These age groups also have the highest rates of binge drinking and alcohol-impaired driving (1). The findings in this report are subject to at least two limitations. First, the communities and retail stores included in this study might not be representative of all communities and stores in the United States. Second, although retailer selection was random, no effort was made to ensure that the various store types were represented proportionally. Few POP alcohol marketing guidelines exist. Given the efficacy and widespread use of POP alcohol marketing, policy makers and public health agencies should work with liquor control boards to curb sales practices that could either increase risky drinking (e.g., selling iced single beers, particularly near checkout counters, which might increase drinking and driving) or promote drinking among young adults, adolescents, and children (e.g., high-intensity or low-height advertising).

Public Domain

Ulstein A. Lunch with the industry. Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 21(English Supplement): 138-148, 2004. (24 refs.)

Commercial interests are gaining greater influence in the international alcohol policy field. This is one of four articles analyzing and discussing how the conflicting interest between the public health position are the industry are evident. This article addresses the inherent problems in "collaborative" efforts with the beverage industry groups. Some actions taken by public bodies are noted. For example, the European Parliament approved in 2001 a report and alcohol and young people, with 445 members of the Parliament in favor and 63 against, that described the beverage industry as part of the problem not the solution. There are conflicts on interest for the beverage industry just as there are for the tobacco and pharmaceutical industries. The beverage industry groups are the International Center for Alcohol Policies (ICAP) at the global level, the Amsterdam Group in Europe and the Portman Group in Great Britain. These groups are extensively involved in lobby politicians and governmental bodies. Illustrative examples of their efforts are provided. In conclusion the author makes recommendations about conditions that need to prevail if working with the beverage industry. These highlight the need for transparency, assurance that the groups not use any joint activities for PR purposes, and that discussions/negotiations should only take place under the auspices of government or international organizations such as the EU or WHO.

Umesao T. Alcoholic beverages and civilization. Keynote address. IN: Umesao T; Yoshida S; Schalow P, eds. Japanese Civilization in the Modern World. XVIII, Alcoholic Beverages. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 64. Osaka Japan: National Museum of Ethnology (Japan), 2003. pp. 1-16. (12 refs.)

This chapter provides an overview of the topic of alcohol consumption, by briefly reviewing the use of alcohol from the earliest records globally and the production of different types of beverages. In Japan, while sake had been used ritually for the preceding 500 years, it was first produced commercially, and taxed in the 15th century. The ultimate growth of this industry was tied to technology, but not the technology of distillation, but the nature of the containers used for both production and transportation. There is also discussion of the philosophy of abstinence, and prohibitionist movements, alcohol naive areas, and Japan's experience in contrast to other areas. The emergence of drinking establishments is also traced, with particular attention to Japan and China.

Whitman DC. Strange Brew: Alcohol and Government Monopoly. Oakland CA: Independent Institute, 2003. (53 refs.)

Although Prohibition ended seventy years ago, the alcohol beverage industry remains one of the most regulated businesses in the United States. The 21st amendment while rescinding prohibition, nonetheless set the stage for extensive state intervention in the production and sales. At the state level, the major approaches involve either monopoly control, in which the established liquor stores, and thus is the retailer of alcohol. Other states, have a license approach, in which private stores need a state license to be allowed to sell liquor and wine. In all states, beer is sold in the private sector. This book examines the complicated structure of the alcohol sales system, the nature of taxes and costs imposed at different points, the impact of monopoly protection, and the purported "beneficial" impact in reducing alcohol problems. Also noted in the discussion is the impact of alcohol sales on the internet.

Yoshida H. Transfer of sake technology to Korea, Taiwan and China. IN: Umesao T; Yoshida S; Schalow P, eds. Japanese Civilization in the Modern World. XVIII, Alcoholic Beverages. Senri Ethnological Studies no. 64. Osaka Japan: National Museum of Ethnology (Japan), 2003. pp. 35-48. (12 refs.)

This chapter reviews the transfer of the technology to produce sake from Japan to other countries. In Japan sake has long been mass produced. it was the largest industry at the beginning of the Meiji era. In the later part of the 19th century, other Asian countries had not yet begun to mass produce alcohol. In many places production was a side business of a drinking establishment. This chapter deals with the production of sake in Taiwan and the Korean peninsula, territories of Japan from the Meiji era to the end of the Second World War, and In Manchuria, currently the North-eastern region of China, then a quasi-colony of Japan. The author considers how Japanese sake was accepted in those regions. It also considers the sake's impact on the alcohol beverage industry in China, and the role played by taxation of alcoholic beverages in the finances of the colonies.