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CORK Bibliography: Advertising

59 citations. September 2010 to present

Prepared: June 2011

Baek TH; Mayer M. Sexual imagery in cigarette advertising before and after the Master Settlement Agreement. Health Communication 25(8): 747-757, 2010. (68 refs.)

This study examines how the sexual imagery in cigarette magazine advertisements changed as a result of the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement (MSA). After conducting a content analysis of 657 unduplicated cigarette ads from 1994 to 2003, our results revealed that cigarette advertisements featuring suggestive/partially clad female models increased significantly from the pre-MSA period (16.0%) to the post-MSA period (24.9%). In addition, we provide empirical evidence that there was an overall increase in sexually explicit cigarette advertising after the MSA. Several implications for policymakers are discussed in detail.

Barnoya J; Mejia R; Szeinman D; Kummerfeldt CE. Tobacco point-of-sale advertising in Guatemala City, Guatemala and Buenos Aires, Argentina. Tobacco Control 19(4): 338-341, 2010. (24 refs.)

Objectives To determine tobacco point of sale advertising prevalence in Guatemala City, Guatemala and Buenos Aires, Argentina. Methods: Convenience stores (120 per city) were chosen from randomly selected blocks in low, middle and high socioeconomic neighbourhoods. To assess tobacco point of sale advertising we used a checklist developed in Canada that was translated into Spanish and validated in both countries studied. Analysis was conducted by neighbourhood and store type. Results: All stores sold cigarettes and most had tobacco products in close proximity to confectionery. In Guatemala, 60% of stores had cigarette ads. High and middle socioeconomic status neighbourhood stores had more indoor cigarette ads, but these differences were determined by store type: gas stations and supermarkets were more prevalent in high socioeconomic status neighbourhoods and had more indoor cigarette ads. In poorer areas, however, more ads could be seen from outside the stores, more stores were located within 100 metres of schools and fewer stores had 'No smoking' or 'No sales to minors' signs. In Argentina, 80% of stores had cigarette ads and few differences were observed by neighbourhood socioeconomic status. Compared to Guatemala, 'No sales to minors' signs were more prevalent in Argentina. Conclusions: Tobacco point of sale advertising is highly prevalent in these two cities of Guatemala and Argentina. An advertising ban should also include this type of advertising.

Beguinot E; Gallopel-Morvan K; Wirth N; Spinosa A; Martinet Y. Tobacco advertising through French TV in 2005: Frequent illicit broadcasting; its impact on teenagers and young adults. Journal of Public Health 32(2): 184-190, 2010. (20 refs.)

Background: Sports sponsorship is one of the tobacco industry's main strategies to recruit new smokers among teenagers and young adults. Methods: Monitoring Motor sports illicit broadcasting based on six channels in 2005; Dakar Rally (DR) and China Grand Prix impact evaluated with a one on one questionnaire administered on 12-24-year-old males and females (n = 805). Results: 75 000 TV tobacco sponsoring appearances (90 h) were observed, total value: (sic)200.10(6); Mild Seven, Marlboro, West, Lucky Strike, Gauloises Blondes accounted for 92% appearances and 95% of euro values, with illegal broadcasting value worth (sic)19.10(6). A high interest in DR (71%) and Formula One (F1) (66%) was observed among males (versus females; P < 0.001), increasing with age (P < 0.05). Levels of spontaneous and assisted recall of cigarette brands were high among individuals interested in DR and F1, with better recall of brand names (versus non interested; P < 0.01); all individuals made correct associations between tobacco brands and car colors (P < 0.01). A non-significant higher percentage of daily smokers was observed among respondents interested in DR (34 versus 21%; P < 0.01) and F1 (30 versus 24%; P = 0.10). Conclusion: This high level of indirect advertising for tobacco through motor sport sponsoring confirms the urgent need for a worldwide absolute ban on tobacco advertising in motor sports.

Burton D; Graham JW; Johnson CA; Uutela A; Vartiainen E; Palmer RF. Perceptions of smoking prevalence by youth in countries with and without a tobacco advertising ban18. Journal of Health Communication 15(6): 656-664, 2010. (18 refs.)

This study examined a proposed mechanism by which exposure to cigarette advertising may mediate the subsequent smoking of youth. We hypothesized that children's exposure to cigarette advertising leads them to overestimate the prevalence of smoking, and that these distorted perceptions, in turn, lead to increased intentions to smoke. Children in Finland, where there has been a total tobacco advertising ban since 1978, were compared with children in the United States at a time when tobacco advertising was ubiquitous. Samples of 477 8- to 14-year-old Helsinki students and 453 8- to 14-year-old Los Angeles students whose lifetime cigarette use consisted of no more than a puff of a cigarette were administered questionnaires in their classrooms. The primary hypothesis was confirmed. Los Angeles youth were significantly more likely than Helsinki youth to overestimate the prevalence of adult smoking, in spite of the fact that actual adult smoking prevalence in Helsinki was almost twice that of Los Angeles adults. A similar, significant pattern for perceived peer smoking was obtained, with Los Angeles youth being more likely than Helsinki youth to overestimate prevalence, in spite of the actual greater prevalence of youth smoking in Helsinki.

Choudhury S; Kengganpanich M; Benjakul S; Lorenzo A; Abascal W; Apelberg BJ et al. Differences by sex in tobacco use and awareness of tobacco marketing --- Bangladesh, Thailand, and Uruguay, 2009. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Review 59(20): 613-618, 2010. (8 refs.)

The majority of the world's 1.3 billion tobacco users are men, but female use is increasing. This report summarizes the results of an analysis of the Global Adult Tobacco Survey. Among the findings are that in Bangladesh and Thailand, use of smoked tobacco products was far greater among males (44.7% and 45.6%, respectively) than females (1.5% and 3.1%, respectively). In Uruguay, the difference was smaller (30.7% versus 19.8%). Use of smokeless tobacco products in Bangladesh was approximately the same among males (26.4%) and females (27.9%), but females were significantly more likely to use smokeless tobacco in Thailand (6.3% versus 1.3%), and use in Uruguay by either sex was nearly nonexistent. In Bangladesh and Thailand, smokeless tobacco use among both males and females increased with age group, and smokeless tobacco use was higher in rural than urban areas. In each of these countries, the greatest prevalence of smokeless tobacco use was among women aged �65 years: 64.1% in Bangladesh and 32.9% in Thailand. In all three countries, awareness of cigarette advertising was greater among females aged 15--24 years than women aged �25 years. Similar age differences were observed among males in all three countries. In Bangladesh, awareness of bidi (80.1%) and smokeless tobacco (69.9%) marketing was widespread among females and did not vary by age. In Thailand, for both males and females, those who lived in urban areas were more likely to report exposure to cigarette marketing than those in rural areas. This relationship also was observed among males in Uruguay. In contrast, awareness of both bidi and smokeless tobacco marketing in Bangladesh was more common among males in rural areas than in urban areas.

Public Domain

Cowling DW; Modayil MV; Stevens C. Assessing the relationship between ad volume and awareness of a tobacco education media campaign. Tobacco Control 19(Supplement 1): I37-I42, 2010. (59 refs.)

Background:The relation between aided ad recall and level of television ad placement in a public health setting is not well established. We examine this association by looking back at 8 years of the California's Tobacco Control Program's (CTCP) media campaign. Methods: Starting in July 2001, California's campaign was continuously monitored using five telephone series of surveys and six web-based series of surveys immediately following a media flight. We used population-based statewide surveys to measure aided recall for advertisements that were placed in each of these media flights. Targeted rating points (TRPs) were used to measure ad placement intensity throughout the state. Results: Cumulative TRPs exhibited a stronger relation with aided ad recall than flight TRPs or TRP density. This association increased after log-transforming cumulative TRP values. We found that a one-unit increase in log-cumulative TRPs led to a 13.6% increase in aided ad recall using web-based survey data, compared to a 5.3% increase in aided ad recall using telephone survey data. Conclusions: In California, the relation between aided ad recall and cumulative TRPs showed a diminishing return after a large volume of ad placements. These findings may be useful in planning future ad placement for CTCP's media campaign.

Cussen A; McCool J. Tobacco promotion in the Pacific: The current state of tobacco promotion bans and options for accelerating progress. Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health 23(1, special issue): 70-78, 2011. (27 refs.)

Tobacco consumption is a major contributor to the burden of chronic noncommunicable disease within the Pacific region. Low and lower-middle income countries are acutely vulnerable to exploitation by the tobacco industry as they often lack the resources and capacity to implement protective tobacco control policies. The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, which has been signed by 14 Pacific Island Countries and Territories, was introduced in 2004 to guide the priorities for tobacco control policy implementation. Legislation, tobacco industry documents, and peer-reviewed journals were evaluated to assess the current status of tobacco advertising bans of the 8 low and lower-middle income countries within the Pacific region. Results identified that of the 8 Pacific countries reviewed, 3 had comprehensive tobacco advertising bans that prohibit tobacco advertisements in 5 to 7 forms of media, and the remaining 5 countries have weak tobacco advertising bans that provide no protection for youth against tobacco advertising. This research reveals the need for resources to support the introduction of effective policies around tobacco advertising in the low and lower-middle income countries within the Pacific region.

Elliott C; Wei YQ; Lenton P. The effect of government policy on tobacco advertising strategies. Bulletin of Economic Research 62(3): 243-258, 2010. (40 refs.)

This paper contributes to the very limited literature examining the factors determining tobacco companies' advertising strategies. The paper explores whether firms in the UK tobacco market significantly changed their advertising expenditure in the face of proposed changes to the UK and European Commission tobacco advertising legislation. The results suggest that changes in legislation have little impact on firms' advertising strategies for existing brands, but that legislative changes impact upon product launch dates. Our results also offer some information on the nature of firm interdependencies in the UK tobacco industry.

Fried BG; Teichman M; Rahav G. Adolescent gambling: Temperament, sense of coherence and exposure to advertising. Addiction Research & Theory 18(5): 586-598, 2010. (53 refs.)

This study examines the relationships between gambling behaviour and temperament, sense of coherence (SOC) and exposure to advertising among adolescents, and the interactions between these three independent variables in relation to problem gambling (PG). One thousand and sixty-nine Israeli adolescents (males 539, females 530), aged 16-19, were sampled from 19 high schools. The following instruments were used: a gambling behaviour scale; a PG scale; an advertising exposure scale; Buss and Plomin's emotionality, activity and sociability (EAS) questionnaire measuring temperament; and a short version of Antonovsky's SOC scale. The findings indicated a relationship between recall of exposure to advertising and gambling behaviour and PG among adolescents. No correlations were found between SOC and gambling behaviour and PG, and no correlation was found between temperament and gambling behaviour. However, the effect of temperament on PG was significant for girls only. In addition, no interaction was found between the three independent variables relating to PG. The findings of this study underline the social role of advertisements in the process of developing gambling behaviour among adolescents and its effect on problem gambling.

Fucito LM; Latimer AE; Salovey P; Toll BA. Nicotine dependence as a moderator of message framing effects on smoking cessation outcomes. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 39(3): 311-317, 2010. (38 refs.)

Background: The persuasiveness of gain-framed and loss-framed messages for smoking cessation may vary by smokers' characteristics. Preliminary research in nontreatment- seeking smokers has shown that level of nicotine dependence moderates the effects of framed smoking messages on quit intentions and smoking cessation attitudes. Nicotine dependence as a potential moderator of message framing effects on actual smoking outcomes among treatment-seeking smokers remains to be determined. Purpose: This secondary analysis of data from a smoking cessation trial (Psychol Addiction Behav. 2007; 21: 534-544) examined nicotine dependence as a moderator of message framing effects on smoking cessation success. Methods: Dependence scores were dichotomized into high and low dependence (n=249). Results: Among high-dependent smokers, gain-framed messages were associated with higher levels of smoking abstinence both during and post-treatment than loss-framed messages. There was no differential effect of gain-versus loss-framed messages among low-dependent smokers. Conclusion: These preliminary findings suggest that the effectiveness of message framing interventions for treatment-seeking smokers may vary by smokers' level of nicotine dependence.

Gallopel-Morvan K; Gabriel P; Le Gall-Ely M; Rieunier S; Urien B. The use of visual warnings in social marketing: The case of tobacco. Journal of Business Research 64(1, special issue): 7-11, 2011. (42 refs.)

Despite strong interest on the part of tobacco health practitioner, the effect of graphic warnings inserted on cigarette packs is unclear on several levels. First the most effective themes for such messages have not been clearly identified by researchers. Second no research has identified the ideal combination of self efficacy and fear appeal warnings that should be inserted on cigarette packs according to Protection Motivation Model principles. The exploratory study we conducted with French consumers to test the effectiveness of new graphic warnings proposed by the European Union in 2004 clearly demonstrate that visual messages as opposed to text warnings are more effective. This study also enabled us to identify the most effective themes of the European set health warnings and social messages. Regarding future public health applications if fear appeals are used they need to be combined with self efficacy and cessation support messages since they provoke avoidance reactions.

Gan QA; Lu W; Xu JY; Li XJ; Goniewicz M; Benowitz NL et al. Chinese 'low-tar' cigarettes do not deliver lower levels of nicotine and carcinogens. Tobacco Control 19(5): 374-379, 2010. (20 refs.)

Background Low tar cigarette smoking is gaining popularity in China. The China National Tobacco Corporation (CNTC) promotes low tar cigarettes as safer than regular cigarettes. Methods: A total of 543 male smokers smoking cigarettes with different tar yields (15 mg regular cigarettes 10-13 mg low tar cigarettes and <10 mg low tar cigarettes) were recruited in Shanghai China who then completed a questionnaire on smoking behaviour and provided a urine sample for analysis of the nicotine metabolites cotinine and trans 3 hydroxycotinine. A total of 177 urine samples were selected at random for the analysis of the carcinogens polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites (PAHs) (1 hydroxypyrene naphthols hydroxyfluorenes and hydroxyphenanthrenes) and the tobacco specific nitrosamine 4 (methylnitrosamino) 1 (3 pyridyl) butanone (NNK) metabolites 4 (methylnitrosamino) 1 (3 pyridyl) butanol (NNAL) and NNAL glucuronide .Values were normalised by creatinine to correct for possible distortions introduced by dilution or concentration of the urine. Results: Smokers of low tar cigarettes smoked fewer cigarettes per day (p=0 001) compared to smokers of regular cigarettes. Despite this lower reported consumption levels of cotinine trans 3 hydroxycotinine and PAHs in urine of people smoking low tar cigarettes were not correlated with nominal tar delivery of the cigarettes they smoked. Urine concentrations of NNAL were higher in smokers of lower tar than higher tar cigarettes. Conclusions: Chinese low tar cigarettes do not deliver lower doses of nicotine and carcinogens than regular cigarettes therefore it is unlikely that there would be any reduction in harm CNTC s promotion of low tar cigarettes as less harmful is a violation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control which China ratified in 2005

Gardiner P; Clark PI. Menthol cigarettes: Moving toward a broader definition of harm. (editorial). Nicotine & Tobacco Research 12(Suppl. 2): S85-S93, 2010. (56 refs.)

The current practice of the tobacco industry of primarily focusing on the extent that menthol cigarettes contribute or do not contribute to excess morbidity and mortality in various diseases does not, in and of itself, fully illuminate the harm caused by these products. In fact, this practice actually masks and obscures the public health harm associated with menthol cigarettes. Given this, this commentary develops and presents a broader definition of harm in which to view menthol cigarettes and as the necessary and underlying rationale of why this candy-flavored ingredient should be removed from all tobacco products. This paper relies on the scientific presentations of the 2nd Conference on Menthol Cigarettes, and the peer-reviewed literature on menthol cigarettes. A broader definition of harm from menthol cigarettes must be analyzed from a broad public health perspective and take into account youth uptake and initiation, menthol's ability to augment addiction through unique sensory properties, spurious health messages associated with these products, menthol's role in cessation inhibition and relapse promotion, and the blatant predatory marketing of these products to the most vulnerable sectors of society. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) should apply the same logic that outlawed other candy flavorings and apply it to menthol cigarettes; in the end, all candy flavorings, including menthol, only serve to make the poisons inherent in tobacco smoke go down easier. Additionally, the mobilization of communities most affected by the menthol cigarettes, the FDA, and candy flavorings and the tobacco industry's machinations will be discussed.

Glantz SA. Commentary on Hanewinkel et al. (2010): Anti-smoking advertisments vaccinate movie viewers against effects of on-screen smoking. (commentary). Addiction 105(7): 1278-1279, 2010. (19 refs.)

Goodall CE; Slater MD. Automatically activated attitudes as mechanisms for message effects: The case of alcohol advertisements. Communication Research 37(5): 620-643, 2010. (56 refs.)

Alcohol advertisements may influence impulsive, risky behaviors indirectly, via automatically activated attitudes toward alcohol. Results from an experiment in which participants were exposed to either four alcohol advertisements, four control advertisements, or four drunk driving public service advertisements (PSAs) suggested that alcohol advertisements had more measurable effects on implicit than on explicit attitude measures. Moreover, there were significant indirect paths from alcohol advertisement exposure through automatically activated alcohol attitudes on willingness to engage in risky alcohol-related behaviors, notably drinking and driving. A mechanism that may explain how these advertisements activate automatic, nondeliberative alcohol attitudes was investigated. Associative evidence was found supportive of an evaluative conditioning mechanism, in which positive responses to an alcohol advertisement may lead to more positive automatically activated attitudes toward alcohol.

Gordon R; MacKintosh AM; Moodie C. The impact of alcohol marketing on youth drinking behaviour: A two-stage cohort study. Alcohol and Alcoholism 45(5): 470-480, 2010. (41 refs.)

Aim: To examine whether awareness of, and involvement with alcohol marketing at age 13 is predictive of initiation of drinking, frequency of drinking and units of alcohol consumed at age 15. Methods: A two-stage cohort study, involving a questionnaire survey, combining interview and self-completion, was administered in respondents' homes. Respondents were drawn from secondary schools in three adjoining local authority areas in the West of Scotland, UK. From a baseline sample of 920 teenagers (aged 12-14, mean age 13), in 2006, a cohort of 552 was followed up 2 years later (aged 14-16, mean age 15). Data were gathered on multiple forms of alcohol marketing and measures of drinking initiation, frequency and consumption. Results: At follow-up, logistic regression demonstrated that, after controlling for confounding variables, involvement with alcohol marketing at baseline was predictive of both uptake of drinking and increased frequency of drinking. Awareness of marketing at baseline was also associated with an increased frequency of drinking at follow-up. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate an association between involvement with, and awareness of, alcohol marketing and drinking uptake or increased drinking frequency, and we consider whether the current regulatory environment affords youth sufficient protection from alcohol marketing.

Grier SA; Kumanyika S. Targeted marketing and public health. (review). Annual Review of Public Health 31: 349-369, 2010. (136 refs.)

Targeted marketing techniques, which identify consumers who share common needs or characteristics and position products or services to appeal to and reach these consumers, are now the core of all marketing and facilitate its effectiveness. However, targeted marketing, particularly of products with proven or potential adverse effects (e.g., tobacco, alcohol, entertainment violence, or unhealthful foods) to consumer segments defined as vulnerable raises complex concerns for public health. It is critical that practitioners, academics, and policy makers in marketing, public health, and other fields recognize and understand targeted marketing as a specific contextual influence on the health of children and adolescents and, for different reasons, ethnic minority populations and other populations who may benefit from public health protections. For beneficial products, such understanding can foster more socially productive targeting. For potentially harmful products, understanding the nature and scope of targeted marketing influences will support identification and implementation of corrective policies.

Griffiths R; Casswell S. Intoxigenic digital spaces? Youth, social networking sites and alcohol marketing. Drug and Alcohol Review 29(5): 525-530, 2010. (38 refs.)

Introduction and Aims. To examine how young people in New Zealand engage with alcohol and reproduce alcohol marketing messages and alcohol-related branding in 'Bebo', a popular social networking site (SNS) on the Internet. Design and Methods. Data are drawn from information posted on approximately 150 Bebo Web pages and analysed by way of textual analysis and cyberspace ethnography. Results. Social networking sites, such as Bebo, provide young people with a digital space in which to share a range of alcohol marketing messages via peer-to-peer transmission. Bebo also enables youth to communicate to one another how they consume alcohol and their views of alcohol marketing messages. The information being shared by young people who use Bebo is openly provided in the form of personal information, forum comments, digital photographs and answering quizzes about their engagement with alcohol. Discussion and Conclusions. Through this sharing of information in the digital Internet environment, young people are creating 'intoxigenic social identities' as well as 'intoxigenic digital spaces' that further contribute towards the normalisation of youth consumption of alcohol. A better understanding of how youth are using the Internet to share their experiences with alcohol and engagement with alcohol-related messages is crucial to public health research as alcohol marketing practices rapidly evolve.

Hanewinkel R; Isensee B; Sargent JD; Morgenstern M. Cigarette advertising and adolescent smoking. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 38(4): 359-366, 2010. (38 refs.)

Background: Although most agree that the association between tobacco marketing and youth smoking is causal, few studies have assessed the specificity of this association. Purpose: This study aims to examine the specificity of the association between cigarette advertising and teen smoking. Methods: A cross-sectional survey of 3415 German schoolchildren aged 10-17 years was conducted using masked images of six cigarette brands and eight other commercial products in 2008. The exposure variable was a combination of contact frequency (recognition) and brand names (cued recall). Sample quartile (Q) exposure to advertisement exposure was calculated in 2009. Outcome variables were ever tried and current (monthly) smoking, and susceptibility to smoking among never smokers. Results: The prevalence of ever smoking was 31.1% and that of current smoking was 7.4%, and 35.3% of never smokers were susceptible to smoking. Ad recognition rates ranged from 15% for a regionally advertised cigarette brand to 9996 for a sweet. Lucky Strike and Marlboro were the most highly recognized cigarette brands (with ad recognition rates of 5596 and 3496, respectively). After controlling for a range of established influences on smoking behaviors, the adjusted ORs for having tried smoking were 1.97 (95% CI = 1.40, 2.77) for Q4 exposure to cigarette ads compared with adolescents in Q I, 2.90(95% CI = 1.48, 5.66) for current smoking, and 1 79 (9596 CI = 1.32, 2.43) for susceptibility to smoking among never smokers. Exposure to ads for commercial products other than cigarettes was significantly associated with smoking in crude but not multivariate models. Conclusions: This study underlines the specificity of the relationship between tobacco marketing and youth smoking, with exposure to cigarette ads, but not other ads, being associated with smoking behavior and intentions to smoke. This finding suggests a content-related effect of tobacco advertisements.

Hanewinkel R; Isensee B; Sargent JD; Morgenstern M. Cigarette advertising and teen smoking initiation. Pediatrics 127(2): E271-E278, 2011. (31 refs.)

OBJECTIVE: To test the specificity of the association between cigarette advertising and adolescent smoking initiation. METHODS: A longitudinal survey of 2102 adolescents, aged 10 to 17 years at baseline, who never smoked was conducted by using masked images of 6 cigarette advertisements and 8 other commercial products with all brand information digitally removed. The exposure variable was a combination of contact frequency and cued recall of brands for cigarette and other advertisements. Multilevel mixed-effects Poisson regressions were used to assess smoking initiation 9 months after the baseline assessment as a function of cigarette-advertisement exposure, other advertisement exposure, and baseline covariates. RESULTS: Thirteen percent (n = 277) of students initiated smoking during the observation period. Although the incidence of trying smoking was associated with increased exposure to cigarette advertisements (10% in the low, 12% in the medium, and 19% in the high cigarette-advertisement exposure tertile initiated smoking), exposure to other advertisements did not predict smoking initiation. Compared with low exposure to cigarette advertisements, high exposure remained a significant predictor of adolescent smoking initiation after controlling for baseline covariates (adjusted relative risk: 1.46 [95% confidence interval: 1.08-1.97]; P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Our results support the notion of a content-related effect of cigarette advertisements and underlines the specificity of the relationship between tobacco marketing and teen smoking; exposure to cigarette advertisements, but not other advertisements, is associated with smoking initiation. Pediatrics 2011; 127: e271-e278

Hanewinkel R; Isensee B; Sargent JD; Morgenstern M. Effect of an antismoking advertisement on cinema patrons' perception of smoking and intention to smoke: A quasi-experimental study. Addiction 105(7): 1269-1277, 2010. (36 refs.)

Aims: To assess the effect of an antismoking advertisement under real-world conditions. Design: Quasi-experimental study. Setting/participants: Multiplex cinema in Kiel, Germany; 4073 patrons were surveyed after having viewed a movie. Some 4005 patrons were >= 10 years old (28.7% between 10 and 17 years). A total of 654 subjects (16.3%) were smokers. Intervention: In the intervention condition (weeks 1 and 3), a 30-second antismoking advertisement-accentuating long-term health consequences of smoking and promoting cessation-was shown prior to all movies; in the control condition (weeks 2 and 4) no such spot was shown. Main outcome measures: (i) Awareness of smoking in the movie, (ii) approval of smoking in the movie, (iii) attitude towards smoking, (iv) intention to smoke in the future and (v) desire to smoke among smokers. Findings: Patrons who were exposed to the antismoking advertisement were more likely to be female, but did not differ with respect to smoking status. After controlling for gender differences, patrons exposed to the antismoking advertisement had (i) higher awareness of smoking in the movies, (ii) lower levels of approval of smoking in the movies, and (iii) a more negative attitude towards smoking in general compared with those not exposed. Among smokers, smoking in the movies increased urge to smoke, but there was no interaction between smoking in the movies and experimental condition. Conclusions: Study results suggest that placing an antismoking advertisement before movies can affect attitudes towards smoking, bolstering evidence in support of such policies.

Harakeh Z; Engels RCME; Vohs K; van Baaren RB; Sargent J. Exposure to movie smoking, antismoking ads and smoking intensity: An experimental study with a factorial design. Tobacco Control 19(3): 185-190, 2010. (24 refs.)

Background: This study examines whether smoking portrayal in movies or antismoking advertisements affect smoking intensity among young adults. Methods: We conducted an experimental study in which 84 smokers were randomly assigned using a two (no-smoking versus smoking portrayal in the movie) by three (two prosocial ads, two antismoking ads or one of each) factorial design. Participants viewed a 60-minute movie with two commercial breaks and afterwards completed a questionnaire. Smoking during the session was allowed and observed. Results: Exposure to the movie with smoking had no effect on smoking intensity. Those who viewed two antismoking ads had significantly lower smoking intensity compared with those who viewed two prosocial ads. There was no interaction between movie smoking and antismoking ads. Baseline CO (carbon monoxide) level had the largest effect on smoking intensity. Conclusion: These findings provide further evidence to support antismoking ads placed with movies because of their possible effect on young adult smoking behaviour. However, caution is warranted, because nicotine dependence appears to be the primary predictor of smoking intensity among young adult smokers in this study.

Harper TA; Mooney G. Prevention before profits: A levy on food and alcohol advertising. (editorial). Medical Journal of Australia 192(7): 400-402, 2010. (17 refs.)

The recent interest in health promotion and disease prevention has drawn attention to the role of the alcohol and junk-food industries. Companies supplying, producing, advertising or selling alcohol or junk food (ie, foods with a high content of fat, sugar or salt) do so to generate profits. Even companies marketing "low-carbohydrate" beers, "mild" cigarettes, or "high-fibre" sugary cereals are not primarily concerned about population health, more so increased sales and profits. In a competitive market, it is assumed that consumers make fully informed choices about costs and benefits before purchasing. However, consumers are not being fully informed of the implications of their junk-food and alcohol choices, as advertising of these products carries little information on the health consequences of consumption. We propose that there should be a levy on advertising expenditure for junk food and alcoholic beverages to provide an incentive for industry to promote healthier products. Proceeds of the levy could be used to provide consumers with more complete and balanced information on the healthy and harmful impacts of food and alcohol choices. Our proposal addresses two of the greatest challenges facing Australia's preventable disease epidemic the imbalance between the promotion of healthier and unhealthy products, and securing funds to empower consumer choice.

Hendlin Y; Anderson SJ; Glantz SA. 'Acceptable rebellion': Marketing hipster aesthetics to sell Camel cigarettes in the US. Tobacco Control 19(3): 213-222, 2010. (99 refs.)

Objective: The aim of the present work was to understand why and how RJ Reynolds and other tobacco companies have marketed tobacco products to young adult social trendsetting consumers (termed 'hipsters') to recruit trendsetters and average consumers to smoke. Methods: Analysis of tobacco industry documents and industry marketing materials. Results: Since 1995, RJ Reynolds developed its marketing campaigns to better suit the lifestyle, image identity and attitudes of hip trendsetters (so-called 'hipsters'), and Camel's brand identity actively shifted to more closely convey the hipster persona. Camel emphasised in-venue events such as promotional music tours to link the brand and smoking to activities and symbols appealing to hipsters and their emulating masses. Conclusions: To reach this targeted and socially valuable trend-setting population, public health advocates must tap into hipster psychology and expose to the targeted community the tobacco company's efforts to infiltrate the hipster community to turn hipsters into tobacco-using role models.

Henriksen L; Schleicher NC; Feighery EC; Fortmann SP. A longitudinal study of exposure to retail cigarette advertising and smoking initiation. Pediatrics 126(2): 232-238, 2010. (25 refs.)

OBJECTIVES: Accumulating evidence suggests that widespread advertising for cigarettes at the point of sale encourages adolescents to smoke; however, no longitudinal study of exposure to retail tobacco advertising and smoking behavior has been reported. METHODS: A school-based survey included 1681 adolescents (aged 11-14 years) who had never smoked. One measure of exposure assessed the frequency of visiting types of stores that contain the most cigarette advertising. A more detailed measure combined data about visiting stores near school with observations of cigarette advertisements and pack displays in those stores. Follow-up surveys 12 and 30 months after baseline (retention rate: 81%) documented the transition from never to ever smoking, even just a puff. RESULTS: After 12 months, 18% of adolescents initiated smoking, but the incidence was 29% among students who visited convenience, liquor, or small grocery stores at least twice per week and 9% among those who reported the lowest visit frequency (less than twice per month). Adjusting for multiple risk factors, the odds of initiation remained significantly higher (odds ratio: 1.64 [95% confidence interval: 1.06-2.55]) for adolescents who reported moderate visit frequency (0.5-1.9 visits per week), and the odds of initiation more than doubled for those who visited >= 2 times per week (odds ratio: 2.58 [95% confidence interval: 1.68-3.97]). Similar associations were observed for the more detailed exposure measure and persisted at 30 months. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to retail cigarette advertising is a risk factor for smoking initiation. Policies and parenting practices that limit adolescents' exposure to retail cigarette advertising could improve smoking prevention efforts.

Hoek J; Gifford H; Pirikahu G; Thomson G; Edwards R. How do tobacco retail displays affect cessation attempts? Findings from a qualitative study. Tobacco Control 19(4): 334-337, 2010. (33 refs.)

Background: Tobacco retail displays promote smoking experimentation among youth; however, little is known about their effect on smokers making a quit attempt. Calls to ban tobacco retail displays would be strengthened if this measure would deter initiation and support cessation. Methods: Semistructured in-depth interviews were conducted with 20 individuals, from two New Zealand provincial cities, who had attempted to quit smoking in the last 6 months. Results: Tobacco products had high visibility, and elicited emotional and physical reactions that created on-going temptation, complicated cessation attempts and stimulated impulse purchases. Participants strongly supported banning tobacco retail displays primarily because they thought this would reduce youth initiation, promote greater consistency with smoke-free promotions and assist those attempting to quit. Conclusions: The effects of tobacco retail displays on smokers making a cessation attempt are explored. The findings are consistent with experimental and survey research, and expand a growing evidence base that supports government-mandated bans on tobacco retail displays.

Kasza KA; Hyland AJ; Brown A; Siahpush M; Yong HH; McNeill AD et al. The effectiveness of tobacco marketing regulations on reducing smokers' exposure to advertising and promotion: Findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8(2): 321-340, 2011. (20 refs.)

Exposure to tobacco product marketing promotes the initiation, continuation, and reuptake of cigarette smoking and as a result the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC) has called upon member Parties to enact comprehensive bans on tobacco advertising and promotion. This study examines the immediate and long term effectiveness of advertising restrictions enacted in different countries on exposure to different forms of product marketing, and examines differences in exposure across different socioeconomic status (SES) groups. Nationally representative data from the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and the United States, collected from adult smokers between 2002 and 2008 using the International Tobacco Control Four Country Survey (ITC-4), were used in this study (N = 21,615). In light of the specific marketing regulation changes that occurred during the course of this study period, changes in awareness of tobacco marketing via various channels were assessed for each country, and for different SES groups within countries. Tobacco marketing regulations, once implemented, were associated with significant reductions in smokers' reported awareness of pro-smoking cues, and the observed reductions were greatest immediately following the enactment of regulations. Changes in reported awareness were generally the same across different SES groups, although some exceptions were noted. While tobacco marketing regulations have been effective in reducing exposure to certain types of product marketing there still remain gaps, especially with regard to in-store marketing and price promotions.

Kelly K; Comello MLG; Stanley LR; Gonzalez GR. The power of theme and language in multi-cultural communities: Which tobacco prevention messages are most persuasive to Mexican-American youth? Journal of Advertising Research 50(3): 265-278, 2010. (62 refs.)

This article reports on an experiment conducted that tested anti-tobacco advertising strategies aimed at a bicultural Mexican-American youth audience. The direct effects of three advertising themes (negative health consequences, social norms against smoking, and tobacco industry manipulation) and three language executions (English, Spanish, and "Spanglish") on adolescent Hispanics' evaluations of the advertisements were examined using a multilevel modeling approach. Additionally, participant-level measures for acculturation and tobacco-related attitudes and behaviors as potential moderators were included. Although all the tested advertisements were viewed favorably, results suggest that a negative health theme may be most effective in a community-wide campaign because it evokes the least amount of counter-arguing among smokers while, at the same time, eliciting positive evaluations from nonsmokers. Results also support the use of either Spanglish or English in the design of anti-tobacco advertising aimed at Mexican-American youths. The study contributes to practical knowledge by examining these factors in stimuli with a high level of ecological validity.

Khowaja LA; Khuwaja AK; Nayani P; Jessani S; Khowaja MP; Khowaja S. Quit smoking for life: Social marketing strategy for youth. A case for Pakistan. Journal of Cancer Education 25(4): 637-642, 2010. (31 refs.)

Smoking is the single most avoidable risk factor for cancers. Majority of smokers know about this fact but it is difficult for them to give it up mainly in the face of widespread smoking advertisements by the tobacco industries. To reduce the prevalence of smoking and its associated cancers, immediate actions are required by public health authorities. Social marketing is an effective strategy to promote healthy attitudes and influence people to make real, sustained health behavior change by transiting through different stages which include precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. Social marketing can influence smokers to voluntarily accept, reject, modify, or abandon their smoking behavior. In Pakistan, the smoking prevalence has been increasing, necessitating effective measures. The trend of its usage has been going upwards and, according to the World Health Organization, in Pakistan, the usage of cigarette smoking is increased by 30% compared to 1998 figures. The Pakistan Pediatrics Association has estimated 1,000 to 1,200 school-going children between the ages of 6 and 16 years take up smoking every day. In Pakistan, ex-smokers in the low socioeconomic group reported spending 25% of the total household income on this habit. This paper focuses on the antismoking social marketing strategy in Pakistan with an aim to reduce smoking prevalence, especially among the youth.

Killos LF; Hancock LC; McGann AW; Keller AE. Do "Clicker" educational sessions enhance the effectiveness of a social norms marketing campaign? Journal of American College Health 59(3): 228-230, 2011. (5 refs.)

Objective: Social norms campaigns are a cost-effective way to reduce high-risk drinking on college campuses. This study compares effectiveness of a "standard" social norms media (SNM) campaign for those with and without exposure to additional educational sessions using audience response technology ("clickers"). Methods: American College Health Association's National College Health Assessment questions are used to evaluate actual and perceived use. Additional survey questions assess individual exposure to the interventions. Results: The authors find "clicker" technology to be more effective than social norms poster media alone in reducing misperceptions of normative alcohol use for those students who attended clicker sessions. Conclusion: Poster SNM campaigns may be most effective when supported by group "clicker" heath-related sessions.

Kinard BR; Webster C. The effects of advertising, social influences, and self-efficacy on adolescent tobacco use and alcohol consumption. Journal of Consumer Affairs 44(1): 24-43, 2010. (38 refs.)

Exploring the simultaneous effects of key variables on the unhealthy consumption behavior of adolescents, two studies focused on the relative effects of advertising, parental and peer influence, and self-efficacy on adolescent tobacco use and alcohol consumption. The results suggest that (1) advertising effects are largely neutralized by parental and peer influence; (2) peer and parental influence strongly predict adolescent tobacco use and alcohol consumption; and (3) self-efficacy is a weak predictor of both adolescent risk behaviors.

Kupersmidt JB; Scull TM; Austin EW. Media literacy education for elementary school substance use prevention: Study of Media Detective. Pediatrics 126(3): 525-531, 2010. (32 refs.)

OBJECTIVES: Media Detective is a 10-lesson elementary school substance use prevention program developed on the basis of the message interpretation processing model designed to increase children's critical thinking skills about media messages and reduce intent to use tobacco and alcohol products. The purpose of this study was to conduct a short-term, randomized, controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of Media Detective for achieving these goals. METHODS: Elementary schools were randomly assigned to conditions to either receive the Media Detective program (n = 344) or serve in a waiting list control group (n = 335). RESULTS: Boys in the Media Detective group reported significantly less interest in alcohol-branded merchandise than boys in the control group. Also, students who were in the Media Detective group and had used alcohol or tobacco in the past reported significantly less intention to use and more self-efficacy to refuse substances than students who were in the control group and had previously used alcohol or tobacco. CONCLUSIONS: This evaluation provides evidence that Media Detective can be effective for substance use prevention in elementary school-aged children. Notably, media-related cognitions about alcohol and tobacco products are malleable and relevant to the development and maintenance of substance use behaviors during late childhood. The findings from this study suggest that media literacy-based interventions may serve as both a universal and a targeted prevention program that has potential for assisting elementary school children in making healthier, more informed decisions about use of alcohol and tobacco products.

Lee MJ. The effects of self-efficacy statements in humorous anti-alcohol abuse messages targeting college students: Who is in charge? Health Communication 25(8): 638-646, 2010. (31 refs.)

This study examined the effect of self-efficacy statements in humorous anti-alcohol abuse television advertisements on college students. A posttest only group design experiment was conducted with 124 college students. It was found that highly rebellious individuals who watched ads with a self-efficacy statement (i.e., 'You Are in Control of the Situation') indicated lower alcohol expectancies, higher risk perceptions, and higher intentions to change their drinking behaviors than those in the non-self-efficacy condition. The findings suggest that health promotional messages should be tailored to rebellious college students, particularly those who are at risk, in a manner that not only gains their attention but also minimizes possible defensive reactions to the given messages. Humorous messages with self-efficacy statements could offer ways to communicate with rebellious college students regarding their drinking problems.

Lee ST; Cheng IH. Assessing the TARES as an ethical model for antismoking ads. Journal of Health Communication 15(1): 55-75, 2010. (55 refs.)

This study examines the ethical dimensions of public health communication, with a focus on antismoking public service announcements (PSAs). The content analysis of 82 television ads from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) Media Campaign Resource Center is an empirical testing of Baker and Martinson's (2001) TARES Test that directly examines persuasive messages for truthfulness, authenticity, respect, equity, and social responsibility. In general, the antismoking ads score highly on ethicality. There are significant relationships between ethicality and message attributes (thematic frame, emotion appeal, source, and target audience). Ads that portrayed smoking as damaging to health and socially unacceptable score lower in ethicality than ads that focus on tobacco industry manipulation, addiction, dangers of secondhand smoke, and cessation. Emotion appeals of anger and sadness are associated with higher ethicality than shame and humor appeals. Ads targeting teen/youth audiences score lower on ethicality than ads targeting adult and general audiences. There are significant differences in ethicality based on sources; ads produced by the CDC rate higher in ethicality than other sources. Theoretical implications and practical recommendations are discussed.

Ling PM; Haber LA; Wedl S. Branding the rodeo: A case study of tobacco sports sponsorship. American Journal of Public Health 100(1): 32-41, 2010. (89 refs.)

Rodeo is one of the few sports still sponsored by the tobacco industry, particularly the US Smokeless Tobacco Company. Rodeo is popular in rural communities, where smokeless tobacco use is more prevalent. We used previously secret tobacco industry documents to examine the history and internal motivations for tobacco company rodeo sponsorship. Rodeos allow tobacco companies to reach rural audiences and young people, enhance brand image, conduct market research, and generate positive press. Relationships with athletes and fans were used to fight proposed restrictions on tobacco sports sponsorship. Rodeo sponsorship was intended to enhance tobacco sales, not the sport. Rural communities should question the tradition of tobacco sponsorship of rodeo sports and reject these predatory marketing practices.

Luke DA; Ribisl KM; Smith C; Sorg AA. Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act banning outdoor tobacco advertising near schools and playgrounds. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 40(3): 295-302, 2011. (15 refs.)

Background: The tobacco industry has challenged new FDA rules restricting outdoor tobacco advertising near schools and playgrounds on First Amendment grounds, arguing that they would lead to a near complete ban on tobacco advertising in dense urban areas. Purpose: To examine how the 2009 Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (FSPTCA) rules banning outdoor tobacco advertising near schools and playgrounds would affect tobacco retailers. Methods: GIS spatial analyses of two different states (Missouri, New York), along with more detailed analyses of two urban areas within those states (St. Louis, New York City), were conducted in 2010. The percentage of tobacco retailers falling within 350-, 500-, and 1000-foot buffer zones was then calculated. Results: 22% of retailers in Missouri and 51% in New York fall within 1000-foot buffers around schools. In urban settings, more retailers are affected, 29% in St. Louis and 79% in New York City. Sensitivity analyses demonstrate that smaller buffers decrease the proportion of affected retailers. That is, 350-foot buffers affect only 6.7% of retailers in St. Louis and 29% in New York City. Conclusions: The effects of new outdoor tobacco advertising restrictions vary by location and population density. In Missouri and New York, outdoor tobacco advertising would still be permitted in many locations if such advertising was prohibited in a 1000-foot buffer zone around schools and playgrounds. Much smaller buffer zones of 350 feet may result in almost no reduction of outdoor advertising in many parts of the country.

McGoldrick DE; Boonn AV. Public policy to maximize tobacco cessation. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 38(Supplement 3): S327-S332, 2010. (48 refs.)

Tobacco use kills more than 400,000 Americans every year. For smokers, quitting is the biggest step they can take to improve their health, but it is a difficult step. Fortunately, policy-based interventions can both encourage smokers to quit and help them succeed. Evidence shows that tobacco tax increases encourage smokers to quit-recent state and federal increases have created dramatic surges in calls to quitlines. Similarly, smokefree workplace laws not only protect workers and patrons from secondhand smoke but also encourage smokers to quit, help them succeed, and create a social environment less conducive to smoking. The impact of policy changes can be amplified by promoting quitting around the date they are implemented. Outreach to health practitioners can alert them to encourage their patients to quit. Earned and paid media can also be used to motivate smokers to quit when policy changes are put into effect. Although these policies and efforts regarding them can generate great demand for evidence-based cessation services such as counseling and medication, it is important to make these resources available for those wanting to quit. Public and private health insurance plans should provide coverage for cessation services, and states should invest tobacco tax and/or tobacco settlement dollars in smoking-cessation programs as recommended by the CDC. Finally, the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act has given the U.S. Food and Drug Administration new authority to regulate tobacco products and marketing, and to prevent tobacco companies from deceptively marketing new products that discourage smokers from quitting and keep them addicted.

Mejia AB; Ling PM. Tobacco industry consumer research on smokeless tobacco users and product development. American Journal of Public Health 100(1): 78-87, 2010. (79 refs.)

Since 2006, RJ Reynolds (RJR) and Philip Morris have both introduced new smokeless "snus" tobacco products. We analyzed previously secret tobacco industry documents describing the history of RJR and Philip Morris's consumer research, smokeless product development, and marketing strategies. We found that RJR had invested in smokeless research, development, and marketing since 1968. RJR first targeted low-income males through sampling and sponsorship at fishing, rodeo, and baseball events, and through advertising portraying the user as "hard working." In the early 1990s, Philip Morris and RJR hoped to attract more urban, female smokeless users. The current "snus" campaigns appear to appeal to these targeted consumers and smokers in smoke-free environments. These efforts may expand the tobacco market and undermine smoking cessation.

Murphy JM; de Moreno SL; Cummings KM; Hyland A; Mahoney MC. Changes in cigarette smoking, purchase patterns, and cessation-related behaviors among low-income smokers in New York State from 2002 to 2005. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice 16(4): 277-284, 2010. (25 refs.)

Objective: This study characterized longitudinal changes in cigarette smoking and purchase and cessation patterns among low-income smokers in New York State. Design: Longitudinal tobacco use surveys were conducted in 2002 and 2005. Responses from the 2002 and 2005 surveys were compared among participants who completed both surveys. Setting: New York State. Participants: Adult low-income smokers (n = 274) were recruited from the Department of Social Services office in Erie County, New York, in 2002 and recontacted in 2005. Main Outcome Measures: These included cigarette smoking, cessation and purchase behaviors, awareness and use of the Quitline, and participation in tobacco industry promotions during the 3-year follow-up period. Results: During the 3-year follow-up period, 37 participants (13.5%) stopped smoking. Among smokers, the average number of daily cigarettes smoked decreased from 16.1 to 13.7 cigarettes (P < .01). There were significant increases in the proportion of smokers who reported that they had ever used a stop smoking medication (26.6% to 51.9%), had ever heard of the Quitline (32.5% to 73.0%), or had ever called the Quitline (4.2% to 11.0%). There was an increase in the use of tobacco industry coupons (41.1% to 59.3%). Conclusions: Findings suggest that state and local tobacco control policies and programs are being increasingly utilized by this population; however, tobacco company price promotions are also being increasingly used, offsetting the public health benefit of the tobacco control policies and programs in this low-income population.

Murphy-Hoefer R; Hyland A; Rivard C. The influence of tobacco countermarketing ads on college students' knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs. Journal of American College Health 58(4): 373-381, 2010. (74 refs.)

Objective: To determine which antitobacco messages were perceived effective in changing college Students' knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about tobacco use. Participants: College students (n = 1,020) were surveyed before and after viewing 4 30-second antitobacco advertisements in 1 of 3 theme categories-social norms, health consequences, or tobacco industry manipulation. Methods: An independent samples t test was used to test for differences in the mean responses to the knowledge, attitude, and belief questions at posttest by smoking status and gender. Results: Health consequences ads significantly increased overall knowledge and negative attitudes and beliefs. Conclusion: Findings from this study may help health educators who work in college settings and other young adult settings to include media messages as part of a comprehensive tobacco control program.

Nelson JP. What is learned from longitudinal studies of advertising and youth drinking and smoking? A critical assessment. (review). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 7(3): 870-926, 2010. (158 refs.)

This paper assesses the methodology employed in longitudinal studies of advertising and youth drinking and smoking behaviors. These studies often are given a causal interpretation in the psychology and public health literatures. Four issues are examined from the perspective of econometrics. First, specification and validation of empirical models. Second, empirical issues associated with measures of advertising receptivity and exposure. Third, potential endogeneity of receptivity and exposure variables. Fourth, sample selection bias in baseline and follow-up surveys. Longitudinal studies reviewed include 20 studies of youth drinking and 26 studies of youth smoking. Substantial shortcomings are found in the studies, which preclude a causal interpretation.

O'Brien KS; Miller PG; Kolt GS; Martens MP; Webber A. Alcohol industry and non-alcohol industry sponsorship of sportspeople and drinking. Alcohol and Alcoholism 46(2): 210-213, 2011. (33 refs.)

Aims: To examine the relationship between direct alcohol and non-alcohol sponsorship and drinking in Australian sportspeople. Methods: Australian sportspeople (N = 652; 51% female) completed questionnaires on alcohol and non-alcohol industry sponsorship (from bars, cafes etc.), drinking behaviour (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT)) and known confounders. Results: 31% reported sponsorship (29.8% alcohol industry; 3.7% both alcohol and non-alcohol industry and 1.5% non-alcohol industry only) Multivariate regression showed that receipt of alcohol industry sponsorship was predictive of higher AUDIT scores (beta(adj) = 1.67, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.56-2.78), but non-alcohol industry sponsorship and combinations of both were not (beta(adj) = 0.18, 95% CI: -2.61 to 2.68; and beta(adj) = 2.58, 95% CI: -0.60 to 5.76, respectively). Conclusion: Governments should consider alternatives to alcohol industry sponsorship of sport. Hypothecated taxes on tobacco have been used successfully for replacing tobacco sponsorship of sport in some countries, and may show equal utility for the alcohol industry's funding of sport.

Peterson EB; Thomsen S; Lindsay G; John K. Adolescents' attention to traditional and graphic tobacco warning labels: An eye-tracking approach. Journal of Drug Education 40(3): 227-244, 2010. (38 refs.)

The objective of this study was determine if the inclusion of Canadian-style graphic images would improve the degree to which adolescents attend to, and subsequently are able to recall, novel warning messages in tobacco magazine advertising. Specifically, our goal was to determine if the inclusion of graphic images would 1) increase visual attention, as measured by eye movement patterns and fixation density, and 2) improve memory for tobacco advertisements among a group of 12 to 14 year olds in the western United States. Data were collected from 32 middle school students using a head-mounted eye-tracking device that recorded viewing time, scan path patterns, fixation locations, and dwell time. Participants viewed a series of 20 magazine advertisements that included five U. S. tobacco ads with traditional Surgeon General warning messages and five U. S. tobacco ads that had been modified to include non-traditional messages and Canadian-style graphic images.

Pierce JP; Messer K; James LE; White MM; Kealey S; Vallone DM et al. Camel No. 9 cigarette-marketing campaign targeted young teenage girls. Pediatrics 125(4): 619-626, 2010. (41 refs.)

CONTEXT: The 1998 Master Settlement Agreement (MSA) restricted tobacco industry advertising practices that targeted teens. OBJECTIVE: To assess whether cigarette-advertising campaigns conducted after the MSA continue to influence smoking among adolescents. DESIGN, SETTING, and PARTICIPANTS: Participants were a national longitudinal cohort of 1036 adolescents (baseline age: 10-13 years) enrolled in a parenting study. Between 2003 and 2008, 5 sequential telephone interviews were conducted, including the participant's report of brand of "favorite" cigarette advertisement. The fifth interview was conducted after the start of RJ Reynolds' innovative "Camel No. 9" advertising campaign in 2007. Smoking outcome reported from the fifth survey. RESULTS: The response rate through the fifth survey was 71.8%. Teenagers who reported any favorite cigarette ad at baseline ( mean age: 11.7 years) were 50% more likely to have smoked by the fifth interview ( adjusted odds ratio: 1.5 [95% confidence interval: 1.0-2.3]). For boys, the proportion with a favorite ad was stable across all 5 surveys, as it was for girls across the first 4 surveys. However, after the start of the Camel No. 9 advertising campaign, the proportion of girls who reported a favorite ad increased by 10 percentage points, to 44%. The Camel brand accounted almost entirely for this increase, and the proportion of each gender that nominated the Marlboro brand remained relatively stable. CONCLUSIONS: After the MSA, adolescents continued to be responsive to cigarette advertising, and those who were responsive were more likely to start smoking. Recent RJ Reynolds advertising may be effectively targeting adolescent girls.

Quick BL; Bates BR. The use of gain- or loss-frame messages and efficacy appeals to dissuade excessive alcohol consumption among college students: A test of psychological reactance theory. Journal of Health Communication 15(6): 603-628, 2010. (72 refs.)

The present study applies psychological reactance theory (PRT) to examine the effectiveness of a 2 (frame: gain, loss)x2 (efficacy: present, not present) experiment to determine best practices in dissuading excessive alcohol consumption among college students. Results from the structural model revealed no association between a perceived threat to choose and message frame or efficacy appeals. As anticipated, a perceived threat to freedom was positively associated with state reactance, which in turn was positively associated with a boomerang effect and negatively associated with favorable source appraisal. State reactance was not associated with favorable attitudes toward preventing the overconsumption of alcohol. In addition to main effects, interactions between message frame and efficacy appeal with four person factors (participant age, trait reactance, perceived health risk, and alcohol consumption) were examined. Individuals perceiving health risk to be low would benefit from gain-frame messages, whereas loss-frame messages would be most effective for heavy drinkers. Finally, when communicating to underage drinkers, our results support using efficacy appeals when accompanied by a loss-frame message.

Ridner SL; Myers JA; Hahn EJ; Ciszewski TN. College students' exposure to tobacco marketing in nightclubs and bars. Journal of American College Health 59(3): 159-164, 2011. (33 refs.)

Objective: To examine whether a college student's exposure to tobacco marketing in nightclubs and bars was affected by the presence of a smoke-free law. Participants: A random sample (N = 478) of students participated in the survey (no smoke-free law, n = 240; smoke-free law, n = 238). The analysis was limited to students who reported being in nightclubs and bars (n = 171). Methods: A nonexperimental, cross-sectional, 2-group design was used. Results: Students in the smoke-free law city were more likely to be approached by tobacco marketers (34.7% versus 20.2%, p = .02), offered free gifts (41.7% versus 24.2%, p = .02), and take free gifts for themselves (34.7% versus 19.2%, p = .02). They were more likely to be exposed to direct marketing strategies (1.83 versus 1.12, p = .02). There was no difference on indirect tobacco marketing by site. Conclusions: Tobacco marketing is pervasive in nightclubs and bars. Smoke-free laws may protect against exposure to secondhand smoke but not the "pro" smoking messages students encounter.

Rogers JD; Biener L; Clark PI. Test marketing of new smokeless tobacco products in four US cities. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 12(1): 69-72, 2010. (13 refs.)

Introduction: This exploratory study was designed to assess the availability, price, and point-of-purchase marketing strategies for new smokeless tobacco products in 4 test market areas. Methods: A random sample of 50 gas stations, convenience and food stores, and tobacco shops was selected in each of 4 test market areas. Pairs of observers visited each store, recorded product information, and engaged vendors in conversation about product demand. Results: Snus was available in 64% of the stores, but availability and price differed by brand. Point-of-purchase marketing also varied by brand on a variety of dimensions and all brands appeared to be marketed primarily to smokers. Camel Snus was described by store attendants as having the highest demand and was also the most expensive of the observed products. In light of the number of test market cities and intensity of promotion at retail locations, Camel Snus was the most intensively marketed product. Discussion: The results appear to reflect differences in marketing strategy by American snus manufacturers. These strategies may help to predict future marketing of snus and other tobacco products and may provide a baseline for later assessments of product acceptance.

Rooke C; Cheeseman H; Dockrell M; Millward D; Sandford A. Tobacco point-of-sale displays in England: a snapshot survey of current practices. Tobacco Control 19(4): 279-284, 2010. (24 refs.)

Background: Tobacco displays at the point of sale (PoS) are an important means for the tobacco industry to communicate with consumers. With regulations prohibiting PoS displays recently having come into force in Ireland, passed into law in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and some Australian states, and being considered in New Zealand, Finland and Brazil, this is an increasingly important issue. This study explores the nature of displays, the extent to which they are tobacco industry funded, and the relation between the tobacco companies and retailers. Methods: Three areas were chosen to gain a snapshot of PoS displays in England. Over 100 retailers were visited, with interviews taking place on site. Information was gathered on the type and size of tobacco display, who was paying for the display, requirements and incentives, and visits by industry representatives. Results: The majority of retailers had gantries provided by tobacco companies. A minority of these were fitted with automated dispensers called retail vending machines. Attractive lighting and colour were often used to highlight particular products. Most retailers were being visited by industry representatives who checked displays. Some retailers also reported incentives offered to them for displaying products. Conclusions: The results suggest that the tobacco industry presence and control in the retail environment is significant. Tobacco companies overwhelmingly provided tobacco gantries in the shops surveyed and influenced displays through a combination of requirements and incentives. The extensive involvement of tobacco companies in providing and monitoring retail displays suggests the importance of implementing policies to end this form of advertising.

Sherriff J; Griffiths D; Daube M. Cricket: Notching up runs for food and alcohol companies? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 34(1): 19-23, 2010. (35 refs.)

Objective: To analyse sports sponsorship by food and alcohol companies by quantifying the proportion of time that the main sponsor's logo was seen during each of three cricket telecasts, the extent of paid advertising during the telecast and the contribution by the main sponsor to this, and to describe the associated ground advertising. Methods: DVD recordings of the three telecasts were analysed for visibility of the main sponsor's logo during actual playing time and for each sponsor's proportion of the advertising time during breaks in telecast. Results: The main sponsor's logo was visible on a range of equipment and clothing that resulted in it being clearly identifiable from 44% to 74% of the game time. The proportion of paid advertising time in these three telecasts varied from 3% to 20%, reflecting the difference in advertising content of paid television versus free-to-air. Implications: While television food advertising to children is under review, sporting telecasts also reach children and, until recently, have avoided scrutiny. This content analysis of three recent cricket telecasts reveals an unacceptable level of exposure to food and alcohol marketing, particularly in the form of the main sponsor's logo. Sponsorship is not covered by the voluntary codes of practice that address some forms of advertising. A new system of regulation is required to reduce this unacceptable level of exposure.

Stokes AQ; Rubin D. Activism and the limits of symmetry: The public relations battle between Colorado GASP and Philip Morris. (review). Journal of Public Relations Research 22(1): 26-48, 2010. (107 refs.)

Litigation has forced tobacco companies like Philip Morris to disclose more than 7 million internal documents, including previously confidential public relations plans. We draw from this archive, as well as from activist materials, to demonstrate that, despite vigorous industry efforts to thwart them, activists in this case employed strategies of values advocacy and inoculation and capitalized on economic benefits to persuade publics. This watershed case poses continued challenges for the 2-way symmetrical or mixed-motive theoretical model of public relations. Accounting for public relations activism and understanding its voice in influencing contemporary public debate requires that scholars move beyond this widely accepted model that stresses compromise between activists and organizations. An alternative rhetorical theory of activist public relations is posited to account for groups that refuse to accommodate opponents.

Strasburger VC; Fuld GL; Mulligan DA; Altmann TR; Brown A; Christakis DA et al. Policy Statement. Children, Adolescents, Substance Abuse, and the Media. Pediatrics 126(4): 791-799, 2010. (129 refs.)

The causes of adolescent substance use are multifactorial, but the media can play a key role. Tobacco and alcohol represent the 2 most significant drug threats to adolescents. More than $25 billion per year is spent on advertising for tobacco, alcohol, and prescription drugs, and such advertising has been shown to be effective. Digital media are increasingly being used to advertise drugs. In addition, exposure to PG-13- and R-rated movies at an early age may be a major factor in the onset of adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends a ban on all tobacco advertising in all media, limitations on alcohol advertising, avoiding exposure of young children to substance-related ( tobacco, alcohol, prescription drugs, illegal drugs) content on television and in PG-13- and R-rated movies, incorporating the topic of advertising and media into all substance abuse-prevention programs, and implementing media education programs in the classroom.

Terry-McElrath YM; Emery S; Szczypka G; Johnston LD. Potential exposure to anti-drug advertising and drug-related attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors among United States youth, 1995-2006. Addictive Behaviors 36(1-2): 116-124, 2011. (32 refs.)

Using nationally representative data from the Monitoring the Future Study on United States middle and high school students, we related exposure to anti-drug television advertising as measured by Nielsen Media Research ratings points, to student self reported drug-related outcomes from 1995 to 2006. Multivariate analyses controlling for key socio-demographics and accounting for the complex survey design included 337,918 cases. Results indicated that attitudes beliefs and behaviors regarding substance use were significantly related to such advertising exposure over the six months prior to the date the youth were surveyed. However the observed relationships varied by grade level over time and by advertising tagline and marijuana focus. Findings differed markedly between middle and high school students across the study. Interval One factor that may partially explain observed differences may be variation in the degree to which the ads focused on marijuana. Putting a concerted effort into increasing anti-drug advertising will likely increase the exposure to and recall of such ads among youth. However the likelihood that such advertising will result in youth being less likely to use drugs seems to depend heavily on the type of advertising utilized and how it relates to different ages and characteristics of targeted youth.

Vallone DM; Duke JC; Cullen J; McCausland KL; Allen JA. Evaluation of EX: A national mass media smoking cessation campaign. American Journal of Public Health 101(2): 302-309, 2011. (28 refs.)

Objectives. We used longitudinal data to examine the relationship between confirmed awareness of a national, branded, mass media smoking cessation campaign and cessation outcomes. Methods. We surveyed adult smokers (n=4067) in 8 designated market areas ("media markets") at baseline and again approximately 6 months later. We used multivariable models to examine campaign effects on cognitions about quitting, quit attempts, and 30-day abstinence. Results. Respondents who demonstrated confirmed awareness of the EX campaign were significantly more likely to increase their level of agreement. on a cessation-related cognitions index from baseline to follow-up (odds ratio [OR]=1.6; P=.046). Individuals with confirmed campaign awareness had a 24% greater chance than did those who were not aware of the campaign of making a quit attempt between baseline and follow-up (OR=1.24; P=.048). Conclusions. A national, branded, mass media smoking cessation campaign can change smokers' cognitions about quitting and increase quit attempts. We strongly recommend that federal and state governments provide funding for media campaigns to increase smoking cessation, particularly for campaigns that have been shown to impact quit attempts and abstinence.

Villanti A; Boulay M; Juon HS. Peer, parent and media influences on adolescent smoking by developmental stage. Addictive Behaviors 36(1-2): 133-136, 2011. (32 refs.)

Previous studies of social influences on adolescent smoking have focused on peers and parents using data collected prior the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement. This study used the 2004 wave of the National Youth Tobacco Survey to examine associations between peer smoking, smoking at home, tobacco related media exposure, and smoking behavior during early and middle adolescence. Findings indicate that peer smoking and smoking at home remain strongly associated with current smoking among early and middle adolescents controlling for gender race/ethnicity and exposure to tobacco industry and anti-tobacco media. The magnitude of the association between peer smoking and current smoking decreases from early adolescence to middle adolescence while the association between smoking at home and current smoking is static across developmental stage. Exposure to tobacco-related media is associated with increased current and former smoking in both early and middle adolescence.

Vollstadt-Klein S; Kobiella A; Buhler M; Graf C; Fehr C; Mann K et al. Severity of dependence modulates smokers' neuronal cue reactivity and cigarette craving elicited by tobacco advertisement. Addiction Biology 16(1): 166-175, 2011. (38 refs.)

Smoking-related cues elicit craving and mesocorticolimbic brain activation in smokers. Severity of nicotine dependence seems to moderate cue reactivity, but the direction and mechanisms of its influence remains unclear. Although tobacco control policies demand a ban on tobacco advertising, cue reactivity studies in smokers so far have not employed tobacco advertisement as experimental stimuli. We investigated whether tobacco advertisement elicits cue reactivity at a behavioral (subjective craving) and a neural level (using functional magnetic resonance imaging) in 22 smokers and 21 never-smokers. Moreover, we studied the influence of severity of dependence on cue reactivity. In smokers, tobacco advertisement elicited substantially more craving than control advertisement whereas never-smokers reported no cue induced craving. Surprisingly, neuronal cue reactivity did not differ between smokers and never-smokers. Moderately dependent smokers' craving increased over the course of the experiment, whereas highly dependent smokers' craving was unaffected. Moderately dependent smokers' brain activity elicited by tobacco advertisement was higher in the amygdala, hippocampus, putamen and thalamus compared with highly dependent smokers. Furthermore, limbic brain activation predicted picture recognition rates after the scanning session, even in never-smokers. Our findings show that tobacco advertisement elicits cigarette craving and neuronal cue reactivity primarily in moderately dependent smokers, indicating that they might be particularly responsive towards external smoking-related cues. On the other hand, neuronal cue reactivity and cigarette craving in highly dependent smokers is more likely triggered by internal cues such as withdrawal symptoms. Tobacco advertisement seems to likewise appeal to smokers and non-smokers, clarifying the potential danger especially for young non-smokers.

Walther JB; DeAndrea D; Kim J; Anthony JC. The influence of online comments on perceptions of antimarijuana public service announcements on YouTube. Human Communication Research 36(4): 469-492, 2010. (70 refs.)

Web-based media often present multiple sources of influence, such as mass media and peers, within one interface. When individuals identify with peers who are visually anonymous and with whom they do not directly interact, they should be susceptible to social influence from that group. This study examined the interplay among antimarijuana public service announcement (PSA) videos in a YouTube environment and adjacent message postings from other viewers about those videos. Results show that supportive or derisive comments affected PSA evaluations but not marijuana attitudes, whereas the interaction effect of identification and comment valence affected both PSA evaluations and marijuana attitudes. Other factors previously related to PSA evaluation such as message strength and perceivers' sensation-seeking did not interact with hypothesized factors.

Weinberger MG; Spotts HE; Markos E. Joe Camel post-mortem of a brand spokesperson. International Journal of Advertising 29(3): 401-430, 2010. (68 refs.)

Dialogue about the use and impact of Joe Camel has dissipated since RJ Reynolds retired the advertising campaign in 1997. However, Joe Camel remains important for advertising because of its controversial and prominent use as a worldwide celebrity presenter. Using a historical lens equipped with before, during and after Joe Camel data, we examine Camel print advertising performance, adult brand usage, market share and advertising/promotional spending from 1986 to 2003. Our research suggests that, though Joe was an ideal celebrity endorser who attained excellent print recognition scores, his direct effect on sales in the short and longer term is unclear considering that Camel's overall market share stayed mostly the same during the Joe Camel campaign. In the end, Joe may have met his demise like any other celebrity endorser whose bad behaviour threatens to cause negative associations that could prove harmful to a brand.

Weiss SM; Smith-Simone SY. Consumer and health literacy: The need to better design tobacco-cessation product packaging, labels, and inserts. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 38(3, Supplement 3): S403-S413, 2010. (32 refs.)

Tobacco-cessation product packaging and instruction materials may not be appropriate for some smokers and may contribute to the underuse and misuse of evidence-based treatments. The dual goals of this project are to analyze literacy levels of Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved and non-approved tobacco-cessation product packaging, directions, and claims, and to identify and categorize claims found on product packaging. The Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids (CTFK) maintains the Quitting and Reducing Tobacco Use Inventory of Products (QuiTIP) database, which catalogs products marketed and sold to consumers to reduce or quit use of tobacco products. It also includes all medications approved by the FDA for tobacco cessation as well as a sample of non-approved products such as homeopathic, herbal, nutritional, or dietary supplements commonly marketed as either cessation aids or alternative tobacco/nicotine products. This paper assesses the reading levels required to understand product packaging, labeling, and instructions using the Simple Measure of Gobbledygook (SMOG) and identifies claims on the product package labels using standard qualitative methods. Key findings show that the average reading levels needed to understand instructions for both FDA-approved and non-approved cessation products are above the reading levels recommended to ensure maximum comprehension. Improving the packaging and directions of evidence-based tobacco-cessation products so that they are preferably at or below a fifth-grade reading level, along with using consumer-based design principles to develop packaging, may help smokers take advantage of and correctly use products that will greatly increase their chances of successful quitting.

Zhao XQ; Nan XL. Influence of self-affirmation on responses to gain- versus loss-framed antismoking messages. Human Communication Research 36(4): 493-511, 2010. (47 refs.)

Self-affirmation has been shown to reduce biased processing of threatening health messages. In this study, the impact of self-affirmation on college smokers' reactions to gain- versus loss-framed antismoking public service announcements (PSAs) was examined. A consistent pattern of interaction was observed wherein self-affirmation produced more favorable responses to loss-framed PSAs and more unfavorable responses to gain-framed PSAs. Self-affirmation also reduced smoking intention in the loss frame condition and increased antismoking self-efficacy across framing conditions. These findings are discussed in light of previous research linking self-affirmation to increased message scrutiny.